Fundamentals

Ninety percent of small to medium-sized businesses (SMBs) acknowledge the potential of automation, yet barely a third have implemented any significant automation solutions. This isn’t merely a gap in awareness; it’s a chasm of understanding regarding the actual worth automation brings to their operations. Many SMB owners view automation through a narrow lens, focusing solely on immediate cost reduction Meaning ● Cost Reduction, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses, signifies a proactive and sustained business strategy focused on minimizing expenditures while maintaining or improving operational efficiency and profitability. or marginal efficiency gains. They often miss the profound, transformative value that automation metrics Meaning ● Automation Metrics, for Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), represent quantifiable measures that assess the effectiveness and efficiency of automation implementations. can reveal ● value that extends far beyond simple balance sheet improvements.

Beyond the Spreadsheet ● Seeing Automation Holistically

The typical SMB owner, often juggling multiple roles and firefighting daily crises, might approach automation with a justifiable skepticism. They’ve likely heard promises of technological salvation before, only to be met with complex systems, hidden costs, and minimal tangible benefit. To truly grasp automation’s value, SMBs must shift their perspective from viewing it as a purely technical upgrade to recognizing it as a strategic business enabler. This shift starts with understanding which metrics truly matter, metrics that paint a complete picture of automation’s impact, not just on the bottom line, but on the entire business ecosystem.

Traditional metrics like Return on Investment Meaning ● Return on Investment (ROI) gauges the profitability of an investment, crucial for SMBs evaluating growth initiatives. (ROI) and Cost Savings are undeniably important. However, they represent only a fraction of the story. Automation’s true worth for SMBs lies in its capacity to unlock hidden potential, optimize resource allocation, and create entirely new avenues for growth. This necessitates looking beyond the obvious and exploring metrics that capture these less tangible, yet equally crucial, benefits.

Time as Currency ● The Efficiency Dividend

One of the most immediate and universally understood benefits of automation is time savings. For SMBs, where time is often the most constrained resource, this efficiency dividend can be transformative. However, simply measuring time saved in rote tasks is insufficient. The real metric of value lies in how this freed-up time is reinvested.

Is it allowing staff to focus on higher-value activities? Is it enabling the owner to dedicate more time to strategic planning and business development, rather than being bogged down in daily minutiae?

Consider a small e-commerce business struggling with order processing. Automating this process with order management software can drastically reduce the time spent on manual data entry, inventory updates, and shipping label creation. The immediate metric is the reduction in processing time per order. However, the more telling metric is what happens with the saved hours.

Are customer service Meaning ● Customer service, within the context of SMB growth, involves providing assistance and support to customers before, during, and after a purchase, a vital function for business survival. response times improving? Is the marketing team able to launch more campaigns? Is the owner finally able to work on expanding their product line? These are the metrics that truly reveal the efficiency dividend’s value.

Automation’s true value for SMBs isn’t just about doing tasks faster; it’s about strategically redeploying saved time to fuel growth and innovation.

Customer Experience Elevated ● Automation’s Human Touch

Contrary to the fear that automation dehumanizes business, when implemented thoughtfully, it can actually enhance the customer experience. Metrics related to customer satisfaction, loyalty, and engagement become crucial indicators of automation’s positive impact in this area. Think about chatbots for customer service. Initially, many businesses worried about impersonal interactions.

However, well-designed chatbots can provide instant answers to common queries, resolve simple issues quickly, and free up human agents to handle more complex and sensitive cases. Metrics to track here include:

• First Response Time ● How quickly customers receive an initial response to their inquiries.
• Resolution Time ● The average time it takes to resolve customer issues.
• Customer Satisfaction Scores (CSAT) ● Direct feedback on customer satisfaction Meaning ● Customer Satisfaction: Ensuring customer delight by consistently meeting and exceeding expectations, fostering loyalty and advocacy. with service interactions.
• Net Promoter Score (NPS) ● Measures customer loyalty and willingness to recommend the business.

Improvements in these metrics, directly attributable to automation, demonstrate a significant value proposition. It’s not just about cutting customer service costs; it’s about providing faster, more efficient, and ultimately more satisfying service, leading to increased customer retention and positive word-of-mouth.

Employee Empowerment, Not Replacement ● The Human Capital Multiplier

A common misconception surrounding automation is that it inevitably leads to job displacement. While certain roles may evolve, the reality for most SMBs is that automation, when strategically implemented, acts as a human capital Meaning ● Human Capital is the strategic asset of employee skills and knowledge, crucial for SMB growth, especially when augmented by automation. multiplier. It frees employees from repetitive, mundane tasks, allowing them to focus on roles that require creativity, critical thinking, and human interaction. Metrics that reveal this value are less about headcount reduction and more about employee engagement, skill development, and overall productivity.

Consider a small accounting firm. Automating data entry, invoice processing, and report generation doesn’t necessarily mean firing accountants. Instead, it allows accountants to spend less time on tedious paperwork and more time on higher-value activities like financial analysis, client consultation, and strategic tax planning. Metrics to consider here include:

1. Employee Satisfaction Scores ● Surveys measuring employee morale and job satisfaction.
2. Skills Development & Training Participation ● Tracking employee engagement Meaning ● Employee Engagement in SMBs is the strategic commitment of employees' energies towards business goals, fostering growth and competitive advantage. in upskilling and reskilling programs.
3. Project Completion Rates & Quality ● Measuring improvements in project outcomes due to employees focusing on higher-level tasks.
4. Employee Retention Rates ● Reduced turnover due to increased job satisfaction and opportunities for growth.

These metrics showcase that automation, rather than diminishing human capital, actually enhances it. It allows SMBs to leverage their employees’ skills more effectively, leading to a more engaged, productive, and ultimately more valuable workforce.

Operational Agility and Scalability ● Building a Future-Proof SMB

SMBs often face limitations in their operational agility Meaning ● Operational Agility for SMBs: The capacity to dynamically adapt and proactively innovate in response to market changes. and scalability. Manual processes, limited resources, and reliance on individual expertise can hinder their ability to adapt to changing market conditions and capitalize on growth opportunities. Automation, when viewed strategically, can be a powerful tool for building a more agile and scalable business. Metrics in this domain focus on process efficiency, resource optimization, and the ability to handle increased workloads without proportional increases in costs or staff.

Imagine a small manufacturing company. Automating production line processes, inventory management, and supply chain coordination can significantly improve operational efficiency. Metrics that reveal this value include:

Improvements in these metrics demonstrate automation’s role in creating a more agile and scalable SMB. It’s about building a business that can adapt to change, handle growth spurts, and operate more efficiently, regardless of size or market fluctuations.

Data-Driven Decisions ● Automation as an Intelligence Engine

Perhaps one of the most underestimated values of automation is its ability to generate data. Automated systems inherently track and record vast amounts of information about processes, performance, and customer interactions. For SMBs, often lacking sophisticated data analytics capabilities, this data stream can be a goldmine of insights, enabling data-driven decision-making and strategic improvements. Metrics here are not just about operational efficiency; they are about business intelligence and strategic foresight.

Consider a small retail store implementing a Point of Sale (POS) system with automated inventory tracking and sales reporting. This system not only automates transactions and inventory updates but also generates data on sales trends, product performance, customer preferences, and peak hours. Metrics that reveal this data-driven value include:

• Sales Trend Analysis ● Identifying patterns and trends in sales data to optimize inventory, promotions, and marketing efforts.
• Customer Segmentation ● Analyzing customer data to understand different customer groups and tailor marketing and service strategies.
• Performance Reporting & Dashboards ● Real-time visibility into key business metrics, enabling proactive monitoring and timely interventions.
• Predictive Analytics ● Using historical data to forecast future demand, optimize staffing levels, and anticipate potential challenges.

By leveraging these data-driven insights, SMBs can move beyond reactive decision-making to proactive strategic planning. Automation transforms from a task executor to an intelligence engine, providing the data foundation for continuous improvement and sustainable growth.

In essence, the true value of automation for SMBs Meaning ● Strategic tech integration for SMB efficiency, growth, and competitive edge. is revealed not just in immediate cost savings or efficiency gains, but in its capacity to unlock human potential, enhance customer experiences, build operational agility, and empower data-driven decision-making. By focusing on a broader range of metrics that capture these multifaceted benefits, SMBs can move beyond the narrow view of automation as a cost-cutting tool and embrace its transformative power as a strategic growth engine.

Strategic Metrics for Automation Adoption

The initial allure of automation for many SMBs often centers on the promise of immediate financial relief ● reduced labor costs, streamlined processes, and a healthier bottom line. While these are valid considerations, focusing solely on basic financial metrics like simple ROI calculations risks obscuring the more profound, strategic value automation can deliver. For SMBs poised for growth, the metrics that truly illuminate automation’s worth are those that align with long-term strategic objectives, reflecting not just cost reduction but also competitive advantage Meaning ● SMB Competitive Advantage: Ecosystem-embedded, hyper-personalized value, sustained by strategic automation, ensuring resilience & impact. and market expansion.

Beyond Basic ROI ● Measuring Strategic Alignment

Calculating the Return on Investment (ROI) for an automation project is a fundamental step, yet it frequently becomes a limiting factor when viewed in isolation. A simplistic ROI calculation might focus solely on the direct costs of implementation (software, hardware, integration) versus the immediate cost savings (reduced labor hours, decreased error rates). This narrow perspective often fails to capture the broader strategic impact of automation. To move beyond this limitation, SMBs need to consider metrics that demonstrate strategic alignment Meaning ● Strategic Alignment for SMBs: Dynamically adapting strategies & operations for sustained growth in complex environments. ● how automation initiatives Meaning ● Automation Initiatives, in the context of SMB growth, represent structured efforts to implement technologies that reduce manual intervention in business processes. contribute to overarching business goals.

Strategic alignment metrics assess automation’s impact on key strategic priorities. For example, if an SMB’s strategic goal is to expand into new markets, relevant automation metrics would include:

• Market Penetration Rate in New Segments ● Measuring the speed and effectiveness of market entry enabled by automation.
• New Customer Acquisition Cost in Target Markets ● Assessing the efficiency of customer acquisition efforts in new markets, potentially improved by automated marketing and sales processes.
• Time to Market for New Products/Services ● Evaluating how automation accelerates the introduction of new offerings in expanding markets.

Similarly, if the strategic objective is to enhance customer lifetime value, metrics would focus on:

• Customer Retention Rate Improvement ● Measuring the increase in customer loyalty attributable to automated customer service and engagement initiatives.
• Average Customer Lifetime Value Meaning ● Customer Lifetime Value (CLTV) for SMBs is the projected net profit from a customer relationship, guiding strategic decisions for sustainable growth. (CLTV) Increase ● Assessing the long-term revenue growth per customer driven by improved customer experiences through automation.
• Customer Churn Rate Reduction ● Tracking the decrease in customer attrition as a result of automation-enhanced customer relationship management.

By focusing on strategic alignment metrics, SMBs can demonstrate that automation is not just a cost-saving measure, but a strategic investment that directly contributes to achieving key business objectives and driving long-term growth.

Strategic automation metrics shift the focus from simple cost reduction to demonstrating how automation fuels key business objectives and long-term growth.

Process Optimization Metrics ● Unveiling Hidden Efficiencies

Beyond high-level strategic alignment, automation’s value is deeply rooted in its ability to optimize core business processes. While efficiency gains Meaning ● Efficiency Gains, within the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), represent the quantifiable improvements in operational productivity and resource utilization realized through strategic initiatives such as automation and process optimization. are often cited as a primary benefit, the true value lies in identifying and measuring the specific process improvements that automation unlocks. This requires moving beyond generic efficiency metrics and delving into process-oriented metrics that reveal hidden inefficiencies and quantify the impact of automation on critical workflows.

Process optimization metrics focus on the granular details of business operations. For instance, in a manufacturing SMB, automating a specific production stage would necessitate tracking metrics such as:

Similarly, for a service-based SMB automating customer onboarding, process metrics would include:

• Onboarding Time Reduction ● Decrease in the time taken to onboard new customers.
• Customer Activation Rate Post-Onboarding ● Percentage of new customers who become active users after onboarding.
• Customer Support Tickets Related to Onboarding (Reduction) ● Decrease in support requests related to onboarding processes.

By meticulously tracking process optimization Meaning ● Enhancing SMB operations for efficiency and growth through systematic process improvements. metrics, SMBs gain a deep understanding of how automation is transforming their operational workflows, pinpointing areas of significant improvement and justifying further automation investments based on concrete process-level data.

Risk Mitigation Metrics ● Automation as a Safeguard

Automation is often perceived as a driver of efficiency and growth, but its value as a risk mitigation Meaning ● Within the dynamic landscape of SMB growth, automation, and implementation, Risk Mitigation denotes the proactive business processes designed to identify, assess, and strategically reduce potential threats to organizational goals. tool is frequently overlooked. For SMBs, particularly those operating in highly regulated industries or facing significant operational risks, automation can provide a crucial layer of protection. Risk mitigation metrics focus on quantifying how automation reduces exposure to various business risks, from compliance violations to operational disruptions.

In industries with stringent regulatory requirements, such as healthcare or finance, automation can play a vital role in ensuring compliance. Relevant risk mitigation metrics include:

1. Compliance Violation Rate Reduction ● Decrease in the frequency of regulatory breaches due to automated compliance checks and processes.
2. Audit Readiness Score Improvement ● Measuring the enhanced preparedness for regulatory audits due to automated record-keeping and reporting.
3. Data Security Breach Incident Reduction ● Decrease in security incidents due to automated security protocols and data protection measures.

Operationally, automation can mitigate risks related to human error, process inconsistencies, and business continuity. Metrics in this area include:

• Error Rate Reduction in Critical Processes ● Quantifying the decrease in errors in key operational processes due to automation.
• Process Standardization Index Improvement ● Measuring the increased consistency and standardization of processes achieved through automation.
• Business Continuity Uptime Percentage ● Assessing the improved uptime and resilience of operations due to automated backup and recovery systems.

By tracking risk mitigation metrics, SMBs can demonstrate automation’s value not just in terms of gains, but also in terms of preventing losses and ensuring business stability in the face of potential risks and uncertainties.

Innovation and Adaptability Metrics ● Fostering a Future-Ready Culture

In today’s rapidly evolving business landscape, innovation and adaptability are paramount for SMB survival and growth. Automation, beyond its immediate operational benefits, can act as a catalyst for innovation and foster a culture of adaptability within SMBs. Metrics in this domain are less about immediate financial returns and more about long-term organizational capabilities ● the ability to innovate, adapt, and thrive in dynamic markets.

Innovation metrics assess how automation empowers SMBs to develop new products, services, and business models. These might include:

• Number of New Product/Service Launches Post-Automation ● Tracking the increase in new offerings introduced after automation implementation.
• Innovation Project Cycle Time Reduction ● Measuring the acceleration of innovation cycles due to automation-enabled prototyping and testing.
• Employee Idea Generation Rate (Post-Automation) ● Assessing the increase in employee-generated ideas for innovation, potentially stimulated by automation freeing up time for creative thinking.

Adaptability metrics focus on how automation enhances an SMB’s responsiveness to market changes and emerging opportunities. These could include:

1. Time to Respond to Market Shifts (Reduction) ● Measuring the decrease in time taken to adjust business strategies and operations in response to market changes.
2. New Technology Adoption Rate (Post-Automation) ● Tracking the speed at which SMBs adopt new technologies, potentially facilitated by the infrastructure and mindset fostered by initial automation efforts.
3. Cross-Functional Collaboration Index Improvement ● Assessing the enhanced collaboration across departments, enabled by automated workflows and data sharing.

By focusing on innovation and adaptability metrics, SMBs can demonstrate that automation is not just about optimizing current operations, but about building a future-ready organization ● one that is agile, innovative, and capable of continuous evolution in a dynamic business environment.

In conclusion, for SMBs seeking to unlock the true strategic value of automation, the focus must shift from basic financial metrics to a more comprehensive set of metrics that encompass strategic alignment, process optimization, risk mitigation, and innovation & adaptability. These strategic metrics provide a richer, more nuanced understanding of automation’s impact, demonstrating its role as a powerful enabler of long-term growth, competitive advantage, and organizational resilience.

Unveiling Latent Value Streams Through Automation Metrics

Conventional approaches to evaluating automation’s impact on Small to Medium Businesses (SMBs) frequently fixate on readily quantifiable gains ● cost reductions, efficiency upticks, and immediate Return on Investment (ROI). This myopic focus, while understandable given SMB resource constraints, risks obscuring the more profound, often latent, value streams that automation can unlock. To truly discern automation’s transformative potential, SMBs must adopt a sophisticated, multi-dimensional metric framework, one that transcends superficial gains and probes into the deeper, systemic shifts automation engenders within the organizational ecosystem.

Deconstructing Value ● Beyond the Tangible Facade

The allure of tangible metrics ● those easily expressed in monetary terms or percentage improvements ● is undeniable. Reduced operational expenditure, increased output per employee, and faster transaction processing are all compelling narratives in the automation sales pitch. However, these metrics represent only the tip of the iceberg.

The substantive value of automation for SMBs frequently resides in less immediately apparent, yet strategically significant, domains. To access these latent value streams, a more granular and conceptually sophisticated approach to metric selection is required.

This necessitates moving beyond simple efficiency metrics and embracing a framework that deconstructs value into its constituent components. Drawing upon established business value frameworks, such as the Balanced Scorecard or Value Chain Analysis, SMBs can identify key value drivers across various organizational dimensions. These dimensions extend beyond purely financial considerations and encompass:

• Customer Value ● Metrics reflecting enhanced customer experience, loyalty, and lifetime value.
• Operational Value ● Metrics capturing process optimization, efficiency gains, and resource utilization improvements.
• Innovation Value ● Metrics assessing the impact on innovation capacity, new product/service development, and market adaptability.
• Human Capital Value ● Metrics reflecting employee engagement, skill development, and organizational learning.
• Risk and Resilience Value ● Metrics quantifying risk mitigation, compliance enhancement, and business continuity Meaning ● Ensuring SMB operational survival and growth through proactive planning and resilience building. improvements.

By systematically mapping automation initiatives to these value dimensions, SMBs can construct a holistic metric dashboard that reveals a far richer and more nuanced picture of automation’s true worth, moving beyond the limitations of purely tangible assessments.

A sophisticated metric framework for SMB automation must deconstruct value beyond tangible gains, encompassing customer, operational, innovation, human capital, and risk resilience dimensions.

Network Effects and Systemic Value Amplification

A critical, often overlooked, aspect of automation’s value proposition is its capacity to generate network effects Meaning ● Network Effects, in the context of SMB growth, refer to a phenomenon where the value of a company's product or service increases as more users join the network. and amplify systemic value across the SMB ecosystem. Traditional metric approaches often evaluate automation initiatives in isolation, focusing on the immediate impact within a specific process or department. This siloed perspective fails to capture the synergistic benefits that emerge when automation is strategically deployed across interconnected organizational functions. To reveal this systemic value amplification, SMBs need to employ metrics that capture network effects and cross-functional impact.

Network effects in automation arise from the interconnectedness of automated systems and processes. For example, automating customer relationship management Meaning ● CRM for SMBs is about building strong customer relationships through data-driven personalization and a balance of automation with human touch. (CRM) can generate data that feeds into automated marketing campaigns, which in turn inform automated inventory management, creating a virtuous cycle of data-driven optimization across multiple functions. Metrics that capture these network effects include:

By employing network effect metrics, SMBs can move beyond departmental optimization and reveal the amplified, systemic value created by strategically interconnected automation initiatives, demonstrating a value proposition far exceeding the sum of individual process improvements.

Dynamic Capability Enhancement ● Automation as an Evolutionary Engine

In the context of dynamic and volatile markets, SMBs require not only operational efficiency Meaning ● Maximizing SMB output with minimal, ethical input for sustainable growth and future readiness. but also dynamic capabilities Meaning ● Organizational agility for SMBs to thrive in changing markets by sensing, seizing, and transforming effectively. ● the organizational capacity to sense, seize, and reconfigure resources to adapt to changing environments and capitalize on emerging opportunities. Automation, when viewed through a dynamic capability Meaning ● SMBs enhance growth by adapting to change through Dynamic Capability: sensing shifts, seizing chances, and reconfiguring resources. lens, transcends its role as a mere efficiency tool and becomes an evolutionary engine, enhancing an SMB’s ability to learn, adapt, and innovate continuously. Metrics in this domain focus on capturing the long-term impact of automation on organizational agility, learning capacity, and strategic responsiveness.

Dynamic capability enhancement metrics assess how automation contributes to building a more adaptive and resilient SMB. These metrics are inherently forward-looking and focus on organizational evolution rather than static performance improvements. Examples include:

1. Organizational Learning Rate (Post-Automation) ● Measuring the speed at which the SMB acquires and applies new knowledge, potentially accelerated by data-driven insights from automated systems.
2. Strategic Responsiveness Index Improvement ● Assessing the enhanced speed and effectiveness of strategic adjustments in response to market disruptions or competitive shifts.
3. Innovation Portfolio Diversification Rate ● Measuring the expansion of the SMB’s innovation portfolio, reflecting a broader range of experimental initiatives enabled by automation.
4. Adaptive Capacity Index ● Composite metric assessing the overall organizational capacity to adapt to unforeseen changes and uncertainties, potentially strengthened by automation-driven agility.

By tracking dynamic capability enhancement Meaning ● SMBs boosting adaptability & growth by sensing, seizing, & reconfiguring with automation in dynamic markets. metrics, SMBs can demonstrate that automation is not just a tactical improvement, but a strategic investment in long-term organizational evolution, building a business that is not only efficient today but also inherently adaptable and innovative for the future.

Behavioral and Human-Centric Value Metrics

Despite the technological focus of automation, its ultimate impact is profoundly human. For SMBs, the behavioral and human-centric dimensions of automation are often critical determinants of success or failure. Metrics that solely focus on technical or financial outcomes risk overlooking the crucial human element ● employee adoption, user experience, and the broader organizational culture Meaning ● Organizational culture is the shared personality of an SMB, shaping behavior and impacting success. shift engendered by automation. To gain a complete understanding of automation’s value, SMBs must incorporate behavioral and human-centric metrics Meaning ● Human-Centric Metrics prioritize people's experiences within SMBs, driving sustainable growth and ethical practices. into their evaluation framework.

Behavioral metrics assess how automation impacts employee behavior, user adoption, and organizational culture. These metrics are often qualitative or semi-quantitative and require a more nuanced approach to measurement than purely numerical indicators. Examples include:

• Employee Automation Adoption Rate ● Percentage of employees actively utilizing and engaging with automated systems and tools.
• User Experience Satisfaction Scores (UX-SAT) ● Direct feedback from employees and customers on their experience interacting with automated systems.
• Organizational Culture Shift Index (Towards Data-Driven Decision-Making) ● Assessment of the extent to which automation fosters a data-driven culture within the SMB.
• Employee Empowerment Perception Score (Post-Automation) ● Measuring employee perceptions of increased empowerment and autonomy due to automation freeing them from mundane tasks.

Human-centric value metrics focus on the broader impact of automation on employee well-being, job satisfaction, and skill development. These metrics recognize that automation’s value is not solely about efficiency gains but also about creating a more positive and fulfilling work environment. Examples include:

1. Employee Work-Life Balance Index Improvement ● Assessing the impact of automation on reducing employee workload and improving work-life balance.
2. Job Satisfaction Scores (Post-Automation) ● Measuring employee satisfaction with their roles and responsibilities after automation implementation.
3. Employee Skill Development & Upskilling Rate (Post-Automation) ● Tracking employee engagement in training and development programs focused on leveraging new skills enabled by automation.
4. Employee Turnover Rate (Reduction Attributable to Automation) ● Assessing the decrease in employee attrition potentially due to increased job satisfaction and opportunities for growth fostered by automation.

By incorporating behavioral and human-centric metrics, SMBs can ensure that their automation initiatives are not only technically sound but also humanly beneficial, fostering a positive organizational culture, enhancing employee well-being, and maximizing the overall value of automation investments.

In conclusion, unveiling the latent value streams of automation for SMBs demands a paradigm shift in metric selection. Moving beyond superficial, tangible gains requires embracing a sophisticated, multi-dimensional framework that deconstructs value, captures network effects, assesses dynamic capability enhancement, and incorporates behavioral and human-centric dimensions. This advanced metric approach provides a far richer and more comprehensive understanding of automation’s transformative potential, enabling SMBs to strategically leverage automation not just for immediate efficiency gains, but for long-term growth, resilience, and sustainable competitive advantage in the evolving business landscape.

References

• Kaplan, Robert S., and David P. Norton. “The balanced scorecard ● measures that drive performance.” Harvard business review 70.1 (1992) ● 71-79.
• Porter, Michael E. “Competitive advantage ● Creating and sustaining superior performance.” Competitive advantage. New York ● Free Press, 1998.
• Teece, David J., Gary Pisano, and Amy Shuen. “Dynamic capabilities and strategic management.” Strategic management journal 18.7 (1997) ● 509-533.