Fundamentals

Consider the local bakery, where flour dust used to hang thick in the air, a testament to hands-on labor. Now, a semi-automated mixer churns dough with programmed precision. The scent of baking bread remains, but the operational hum signals a shift.

This transition, replicated across countless small to medium businesses (SMBs), begs a critical question ● how do we know if this automation is actually working? Forget the glossy brochures promising efficiency; the real answer lies buried in the everyday data SMBs already generate.

Beyond the Hype Cycle

Automation vendors often paint a picture of seamless transformation, a world where robots and software effortlessly boost profits. This vision, while appealing, often overlooks the messy reality of SMB operations. For a small business owner, the term ‘automation’ might conjure images of expensive robots or complex software, seemingly out of reach and irrelevant to their daily struggles. The truth is, automation in the SMB context is frequently less about replacing humans entirely and more about augmenting their capabilities, streamlining workflows, and eliminating repetitive drudgery.

It is about making existing processes better, faster, and more reliable. To understand if automation is truly successful, we need to move past the marketing hype and focus on tangible, data-driven indicators.

The Data You Already Have

SMBs often underestimate the wealth of data they are already sitting on. Sales figures, customer service Meaning ● Customer service, within the context of SMB growth, involves providing assistance and support to customers before, during, and after a purchase, a vital function for business survival. logs, inventory records, even employee timesheets ● these are all potential goldmines of information. The key is to learn how to extract meaningful insights from this raw data, particularly in the context of automation. Think of it like this ● before automation, you might have relied on gut feeling or anecdotal evidence to assess performance.

Automation, when implemented effectively, should provide concrete data points that either validate or challenge those assumptions. This data can be surprisingly simple to track and analyze, even without advanced technical skills or expensive analytics software.

Key Data Indicators for Automation Success

What specific data points should SMBs be paying attention to? The answer will vary depending on the industry, the type of automation implemented, and the specific goals of the business. However, several core indicators are broadly applicable across different SMB contexts.

Time Savings and Efficiency Gains

One of the most immediate and easily measurable benefits of automation is time savings. If you’ve automated a previously manual task, you should see a clear reduction in the time it takes to complete that task. This can be tracked in various ways, depending on the nature of the task. For example, if you’ve automated invoice processing, you can measure the average time it takes to process an invoice before and after automation.

Similarly, if you’ve automated customer service inquiries using a chatbot, you can track the average response time to customer queries. These time savings translate directly into efficiency gains, freeing up employee time for more strategic and value-added activities.

Automation success in SMBs isn’t about replacing human effort entirely; it’s about strategically augmenting it with data-driven processes for tangible improvements.

Consider a small e-commerce business that automated its order fulfillment Meaning ● Order fulfillment, within the realm of SMB growth, automation, and implementation, signifies the complete process from when a customer places an order to when they receive it, encompassing warehousing, picking, packing, shipping, and delivery. process. Before automation, employees manually picked, packed, and shipped orders, a time-consuming and error-prone process. After implementing an automated order fulfillment system, the business can track the time it takes to fulfill an order from placement to shipment.

A significant reduction in this time indicates successful automation, leading to faster delivery times, improved customer satisfaction, and reduced labor costs. This kind of efficiency boost is the bedrock of early automation wins.

Cost Reduction

Cost reduction is another crucial indicator of automation success. Automation can reduce costs in several ways, including reduced labor costs, lower error rates (leading to less rework and waste), and optimized resource utilization. To measure cost reduction, SMBs need to track relevant cost metrics before and after automation implementation. For example, if you’ve automated your marketing efforts using marketing automation Meaning ● Marketing Automation for SMBs: Strategically automating marketing tasks to enhance efficiency, personalize customer experiences, and drive sustainable business growth. software, you can track your customer acquisition cost Meaning ● Customer Acquisition Cost (CAC) signifies the total expenditure an SMB incurs to attract a new customer, blending marketing and sales expenses. (CAC) before and after automation.

A decrease in CAC indicates that automation is making your marketing efforts more cost-effective. Similarly, automating inventory management can lead to reduced inventory holding costs and minimized stockouts, both of which contribute to cost savings.

Imagine a small manufacturing company that automated a portion of its production line. By implementing automated machinery, the company can reduce its reliance on manual labor, leading to lower wage expenses. Furthermore, automated processes are often more precise and consistent than manual processes, resulting in fewer defects and less material waste.

Tracking production costs per unit before and after automation will reveal the extent of cost reduction Meaning ● Cost Reduction, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses, signifies a proactive and sustained business strategy focused on minimizing expenditures while maintaining or improving operational efficiency and profitability. achieved. These savings directly impact the bottom line and demonstrate the financial viability of automation investments.

Improved Accuracy and Reduced Errors

Human error is an inevitable part of manual processes. Automation, when properly implemented, can significantly reduce errors and improve accuracy. This is particularly important in tasks that are repetitive, detail-oriented, or require high levels of precision. To measure the impact of automation on accuracy, SMBs need to track error rates before and after automation.

For example, in data entry tasks, automated data capture and validation tools can dramatically reduce errors compared to manual data entry. In customer service, chatbots can provide consistent and accurate information, minimizing the risk of misinformation. Reduced errors lead to improved data quality, enhanced operational efficiency, and increased customer satisfaction.

Consider a small accounting firm that automated its bookkeeping processes using accounting software. Manual bookkeeping is prone to errors, which can lead to financial discrepancies and compliance issues. By automating tasks such as data entry, reconciliation, and report generation, the firm can significantly reduce the risk of errors.

Tracking the number of errors detected during audits before and after automation will demonstrate the improvement in accuracy. This increased accuracy not only saves time and money but also builds trust and credibility with clients.

Increased Customer Satisfaction

While seemingly less direct, customer satisfaction Meaning ● Customer Satisfaction: Ensuring customer delight by consistently meeting and exceeding expectations, fostering loyalty and advocacy. is a vital indicator of automation success, particularly in customer-facing processes. Automation can improve customer satisfaction by providing faster response times, more consistent service, and personalized experiences. For example, chatbots can provide instant answers to common customer questions, reducing wait times and improving customer convenience. Automated email marketing can deliver timely and relevant communications, enhancing customer engagement.

To measure the impact of automation on customer satisfaction, SMBs can track metrics such as customer satisfaction scores (CSAT), Net Promoter Scores (NPS), and customer retention rates. Positive trends in these metrics suggest that automation is contributing to a better customer experience.

Think about a small restaurant that implemented an online ordering and reservation system. Before automation, customers had to call in to place orders or make reservations, often experiencing busy signals or long wait times. With the automated system, customers can easily place orders and book tables online, at their convenience.

Tracking customer feedback through online reviews and surveys will reveal whether the automated system is improving customer satisfaction. Increased positive reviews and higher customer ratings indicate that automation is enhancing the customer experience and building loyalty.

Employee Satisfaction and Empowerment

Automation is not just about machines replacing humans; it can also be about empowering employees and improving their job satisfaction. By automating repetitive and mundane tasks, automation frees up employees to focus on more challenging, creative, and strategic work. This can lead to increased job satisfaction, reduced employee turnover, and improved employee morale.

While employee satisfaction is more qualitative than quantitative, SMBs can still track indicators such as employee surveys, feedback sessions, and employee retention rates. Positive trends in these areas suggest that automation is having a positive impact on the workforce.

Imagine a small marketing agency that automated its social media posting and scheduling tasks. Before automation, marketing employees spent significant time manually posting content across different social media platforms. By automating these tasks, employees can now dedicate more time to developing creative marketing strategies, analyzing campaign performance, and engaging with clients.

Conducting employee surveys to gauge job satisfaction and tracking employee turnover rates will provide insights into the impact of automation on employee morale. Happier and more engaged employees are more productive and contribute to a more positive work environment.

These data indicators ● time savings, cost reduction, improved accuracy, increased customer satisfaction, and employee empowerment ● provide a practical framework for SMBs to assess the success of their automation initiatives. By focusing on these tangible metrics, SMBs can move beyond the hype and make data-driven decisions about their automation investments.

To summarize, for SMBs venturing into automation, the path to success is paved with data. Forget the abstract promises; focus on the concrete indicators within your reach. Are you saving time? Are costs coming down?

Are errors diminishing? Are your customers happier? Are your employees more engaged? If the data points towards ‘yes’ on these fronts, then your automation journey is likely on the right track. This is not about blindly chasing technology; it’s about strategically leveraging data to build a more efficient, profitable, and human-centric small business.

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Navigating Automation Metrics A Deeper Dive

The initial foray into automation for SMBs often focuses on readily apparent metrics ● time saved, costs cut, errors reduced. These are the foundational indicators, the low-hanging fruit of data-driven assessment. However, as SMBs mature in their automation journey, a more sophisticated understanding of success metrics becomes crucial.

Moving beyond the basics requires a deeper dive into business data, exploring metrics that reflect strategic alignment, operational resilience, and long-term value creation. It is about shifting from measuring tactical efficiency to evaluating strategic effectiveness.

Strategic Alignment and Automation ROI

Automation should not be viewed as an isolated initiative; it must be strategically aligned with the overall business goals of the SMB. This alignment is paramount for maximizing the return on investment (ROI) in automation. Simply automating tasks for the sake of automation can lead to wasted resources and misaligned priorities.

To assess strategic alignment, SMBs need to consider how automation initiatives Meaning ● Automation Initiatives, in the context of SMB growth, represent structured efforts to implement technologies that reduce manual intervention in business processes. contribute to key strategic objectives, such as revenue growth, market expansion, or improved competitive positioning. Measuring automation ROI Meaning ● Automation ROI for SMBs is the strategic value created by automation, beyond just financial returns, crucial for long-term growth. in this context goes beyond simple cost savings; it involves evaluating the broader business impact of automation investments.

Consider an SMB in the retail sector aiming to expand its online presence and compete with larger e-commerce players. Automating its online customer service using AI-powered chatbots and personalized email marketing campaigns directly supports this strategic objective. To measure the ROI, the SMB should track metrics such as online sales growth, customer acquisition cost for online channels, and customer lifetime value Meaning ● Customer Lifetime Value (CLTV) for SMBs is the projected net profit from a customer relationship, guiding strategic decisions for sustainable growth. for online customers.

A positive ROI in this context indicates that automation is not only improving efficiency but also driving strategic growth in the online market segment. This strategic perspective is vital for justifying automation investments and ensuring they contribute to long-term business success.

Operational Resilience and Scalability

Beyond immediate efficiency gains, automation should contribute to the operational resilience Meaning ● Operational Resilience: SMB's ability to maintain essential operations during disruptions, ensuring business continuity and growth. and scalability of SMBs. Resilience refers to the ability of the business to withstand disruptions and maintain operational continuity. Scalability refers to the ability to handle increased workloads and business growth without proportionally increasing costs or compromising performance.

Automation can enhance both resilience and scalability by reducing reliance on manual processes, improving process standardization, and enabling faster response times to changing market demands. Data indicators for operational resilience and scalability include process uptime, throughput capacity, and response time variability.

Data illuminates the true impact of automation, moving beyond surface-level metrics to reveal strategic alignment Meaning ● Strategic Alignment for SMBs: Dynamically adapting strategies & operations for sustained growth in complex environments. and long-term value.

Imagine an SMB in the logistics industry that automated its warehouse operations using robotics and automated guided vehicles (AGVs). This automation not only improves efficiency but also enhances operational resilience. In case of labor shortages or unexpected disruptions, the automated warehouse can continue to operate with minimal human intervention, ensuring business continuity. To measure resilience, the SMB can track metrics such as warehouse uptime, order fulfillment rates during peak seasons or disruptions, and the time taken to recover from operational incidents.

Furthermore, automation enables scalability by allowing the warehouse to handle increasing order volumes without requiring proportional increases in labor or warehouse space. Tracking throughput capacity and order processing times as the business grows will demonstrate the scalability benefits of automation.

Process Optimization and Bottleneck Identification

Automation initiatives often reveal hidden inefficiencies and bottlenecks in existing business processes. By collecting and analyzing data from automated processes, SMBs can gain valuable insights into process performance and identify areas for further optimization. This data-driven approach to process improvement is a significant advantage of automation.

Metrics for process optimization Meaning ● Enhancing SMB operations for efficiency and growth through systematic process improvements. include cycle times, throughput rates, and wait times at different stages of the process. Analyzing these metrics can pinpoint bottlenecks and areas where process adjustments or further automation can yield significant improvements.

Consider an SMB in the healthcare industry that automated its patient appointment scheduling and reminder system. Analyzing data from the automated system can reveal bottlenecks in the appointment scheduling process, such as long wait times for certain types of appointments or high rates of no-shows. By identifying these bottlenecks, the SMB can implement process improvements, such as adjusting appointment scheduling rules, optimizing appointment durations, or implementing more proactive patient reminders.

Tracking metrics such as appointment cycle times, patient wait times, and no-show rates before and after process optimization will demonstrate the effectiveness of data-driven process improvement. This iterative cycle of automation, data analysis, and process optimization is crucial for maximizing the benefits of automation in the long run.

Data Quality and Integrity

The success of data-driven automation hinges on the quality and integrity of the data being used. Automated systems rely on accurate and reliable data to function effectively and generate meaningful insights. Poor data quality Meaning ● Data Quality, within the realm of SMB operations, fundamentally addresses the fitness of data for its intended uses in business decision-making, automation initiatives, and successful project implementations. can lead to inaccurate automation outputs, flawed decision-making, and ultimately, undermine the benefits of automation. SMBs need to prioritize data quality and implement measures to ensure data accuracy, completeness, and consistency.

Metrics for data quality include data accuracy Meaning ● In the sphere of Small and Medium-sized Businesses, data accuracy signifies the degree to which information correctly reflects the real-world entities it is intended to represent. rates, data completeness rates, and data consistency metrics. Regular data audits and data cleansing processes are essential for maintaining data quality in automated environments.

Imagine an SMB in the financial services industry that automated its loan application processing using AI-powered algorithms. The accuracy and reliability of the loan decisions made by the automated system depend heavily on the quality of the data used to train and operate the algorithms. If the data contains errors, biases, or inconsistencies, the automated system may make inaccurate or unfair loan decisions. To ensure data quality, the SMB needs to implement robust data validation and cleansing processes.

Tracking metrics such as data accuracy rates in loan applications, data completeness rates for customer information, and data consistency across different data sources will help monitor and maintain data quality. Investing in data quality is a prerequisite for realizing the full potential of data-driven automation.

Employee Skill Development and Adaptation

Automation inevitably changes the nature of work and the skills required of employees. While automation eliminates repetitive and mundane tasks, it also creates new opportunities for employees to focus on higher-value activities that require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity. Successful automation implementation Meaning ● Strategic integration of tech to boost SMB efficiency, growth, and competitiveness. requires SMBs to invest in employee skill development Meaning ● Employee Skill Development for SMBs is the strategic enhancement of employee abilities to drive growth, automation, and long-term success. and adaptation.

This includes training employees to work with automated systems, developing new skills relevant to automated processes, and fostering a culture of continuous learning and adaptation. Metrics for employee skill development and adaptation include employee training participation rates, employee skill proficiency assessments, and employee feedback on automation-related changes.

Consider an SMB in the marketing industry that adopted marketing automation software. Marketing employees need to develop new skills to effectively utilize the software, such as campaign design, data analysis, and automation workflow management. The SMB should invest in training programs to equip employees with these new skills.

Tracking employee participation rates in training programs, assessing employee proficiency in using the marketing automation software, and gathering employee feedback on their experiences with automation will provide insights into the effectiveness of employee skill development efforts. Successful automation implementation is not just about technology; it is also about empowering employees to thrive in an automated work environment.

Moving beyond the fundamental metrics, SMBs need to embrace a more strategic and nuanced approach to measuring automation success. This involves considering strategic alignment, operational resilience, process optimization, data quality, and employee adaptation. By focusing on these intermediate-level metrics, SMBs can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the true impact of automation and ensure that their automation investments deliver long-term value and contribute to sustainable business growth. It is about evolving from simply tracking efficiency to strategically managing effectiveness.

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Automation Success In The Age Of Algorithmic Business

The initial stages of SMB automation often revolve around tactical gains ● efficiency boosts, cost reductions, error minimization. These are crucial, foundational metrics. As SMBs mature in their automation journey, however, a shift in perspective is required.

Automation ceases to be merely a tool for operational improvement; it evolves into a strategic lever, reshaping business models and redefining competitive landscapes. In this advanced phase, assessing automation success Meaning ● Automation Success, within the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), signifies the measurable and positive outcomes derived from implementing automated processes and technologies. demands a more sophisticated, multi-dimensional approach, one that delves into the realm of algorithmic business Meaning ● An Algorithmic Business, particularly concerning SMB growth, automation, and implementation, represents an operational model where decision-making and processes are significantly driven and augmented by algorithms. and its profound implications for SMB growth and sustainability.

Algorithmic Efficiency And Dynamic Optimization

Advanced automation leverages algorithms not simply to execute pre-defined tasks, but to dynamically optimize processes in real-time. This algorithmic efficiency Meaning ● Algorithmic Efficiency for SMBs: Strategically optimizing processes with algorithms to maximize business outcomes while ethically minimizing resource use. goes beyond static process improvements; it entails continuous adaptation and learning, driven by data feedback loops. Measuring success in this context requires metrics that capture the dynamism and adaptability of automated systems.

These metrics include real-time process optimization rates, algorithmic learning curves, and responsiveness to dynamic market conditions. The focus shifts from measuring fixed efficiency gains Meaning ● Efficiency Gains, within the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), represent the quantifiable improvements in operational productivity and resource utilization realized through strategic initiatives such as automation and process optimization. to evaluating the system’s capacity for continuous improvement and agile adaptation.

Consider an SMB operating in the dynamic world of personalized e-commerce. Advanced automation Meaning ● Advanced Automation, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), signifies the strategic implementation of sophisticated technologies that move beyond basic task automation to drive significant improvements in business processes, operational efficiency, and scalability. might involve an AI-powered recommendation engine that not only suggests products based on past purchases but also dynamically adjusts recommendations based on real-time browsing behavior, trending products, and even external factors like weather or social media sentiment. Measuring the success of this algorithmic automation requires tracking metrics beyond simple click-through rates or conversion rates.

It involves analyzing the real-time optimization rate of the recommendation engine, the speed at which the algorithm learns from new data, and the system’s ability to adapt to rapidly changing customer preferences and market trends. This dynamic optimization is the hallmark of advanced automation, driving continuous improvement and competitive advantage in volatile business environments.

Predictive Analytics And Proactive Business Steering

Advanced automation empowers SMBs to move beyond reactive operational management to proactive business steering, leveraging predictive analytics. By analyzing historical data and real-time signals, automated systems can forecast future trends, anticipate potential disruptions, and proactively adjust business strategies. Measuring success in this predictive realm requires metrics that assess the accuracy and effectiveness of predictive capabilities.

These metrics include forecast accuracy rates, lead time for proactive adjustments, and the impact of predictive insights on key business outcomes. The value proposition of automation expands from simply improving current operations to shaping future business trajectories.

Advanced automation transcends mere efficiency; it’s about algorithmic agility, predictive foresight, and strategic business model transformation.

Imagine an SMB in the supply chain management sector. Advanced automation might involve a predictive demand forecasting system that analyzes historical sales data, seasonal trends, economic indicators, and even social media buzz to predict future demand fluctuations with high accuracy. This predictive capability allows the SMB to proactively adjust inventory levels, optimize production schedules, and negotiate favorable contracts with suppliers, minimizing stockouts and reducing inventory holding costs.

Measuring the success of this predictive automation requires tracking metrics such as the accuracy rate of demand forecasts, the lead time for proactive inventory adjustments, and the impact of these adjustments on key supply chain metrics like inventory turnover and order fulfillment rates. This proactive business steering, enabled by predictive analytics, transforms automation from an operational tool to a strategic asset, driving resilience and competitive advantage in complex supply chain ecosystems.

Personalization At Scale And Hyper-Customer Centricity

Advanced automation enables SMBs to achieve personalization at scale, delivering hyper-customer-centric experiences without proportional increases in operational complexity or costs. This personalization goes beyond basic customer segmentation; it involves tailoring products, services, and interactions to individual customer needs and preferences in real-time. Measuring success in this personalization domain requires metrics that capture the depth and impact of personalized customer experiences.

These metrics include customer engagement Meaning ● Customer Engagement is the ongoing, value-driven interaction between an SMB and its customers, fostering loyalty and driving sustainable growth. rates with personalized content, customer satisfaction scores for personalized interactions, and the correlation between personalization efforts and customer lifetime value. The focus shifts from generic customer satisfaction to individualized customer delight and loyalty.

Consider an SMB in the hospitality industry, a boutique hotel chain. Advanced automation might involve a personalized guest experience platform that leverages AI to analyze guest preferences, past stays, and real-time feedback to tailor every aspect of the guest journey, from personalized room recommendations and customized amenity offerings to proactive service suggestions and dynamic pricing adjustments. Measuring the success of this hyper-personalization requires tracking metrics beyond standard hotel occupancy rates or average daily rates.

It involves analyzing customer engagement rates with personalized offers, customer satisfaction scores specifically related to personalized services, and the correlation between personalization efforts and guest loyalty, repeat bookings, and positive word-of-mouth referrals. This personalization at scale, enabled by advanced automation, transforms customer relationships from transactional interactions to deeply engaging, loyalty-driving experiences, creating a significant competitive differentiator in the experience economy.

Innovation Velocity And Adaptive Business Models

Advanced automation fosters a culture of innovation and enables SMBs to rapidly adapt their business models to evolving market dynamics. By automating routine tasks and freeing up human capital, automation empowers employees to focus on innovation, experimentation, and the development of new products, services, and business models. Measuring success in this innovation-driven context requires metrics that capture the velocity and impact of innovation initiatives.

These metrics include the number of new products or services launched, the time-to-market for new innovations, and the revenue contribution from newly launched offerings. The value proposition of automation expands from operational efficiency and customer centricity to business model agility and future-proofing.

Imagine an SMB in the software development industry. Advanced automation might involve a fully automated DevOps pipeline that streamlines the software development lifecycle, from code commit to deployment, enabling rapid iteration, continuous integration, and continuous delivery of new software features and updates. This automation not only improves development efficiency but also accelerates innovation velocity. Measuring the success of this innovation-focused automation requires tracking metrics beyond lines of code deployed or bug fix rates.

It involves analyzing the number of new software features launched per quarter, the time-to-market for new product releases, and the revenue generated from newly launched software offerings. This innovation velocity, enabled by advanced automation, transforms the SMB from a reactive software provider to a proactive innovation engine, constantly adapting and evolving to meet the ever-changing demands of the software market.

Ethical Algorithmic Governance And Trust Building

As SMBs increasingly rely on algorithmic automation, ethical considerations and trust building become paramount. Advanced automation systems, particularly those involving AI, can raise ethical concerns related to bias, fairness, transparency, and accountability. Measuring success in this ethical dimension requires metrics that assess the ethical governance Meaning ● Ethical Governance in SMBs constitutes a framework of policies, procedures, and behaviors designed to ensure business operations align with legal, ethical, and societal expectations. of automated systems and the level of trust they engender among stakeholders.

These metrics include bias detection rates in algorithmic outputs, transparency scores for algorithmic decision-making processes, and stakeholder trust surveys. The focus shifts from purely quantitative performance metrics to qualitative assessments of ethical impact and social responsibility.

Consider an SMB in the human resources sector that automated its recruitment process using AI-powered applicant screening and selection tools. Ethical considerations are paramount in this context, as biased algorithms can perpetuate discriminatory hiring practices. Measuring the ethical governance of this automation requires tracking metrics such as bias detection rates in algorithmic applicant rankings, transparency scores for the criteria used by the algorithms to evaluate candidates, and feedback from candidates and employees regarding the fairness and transparency of the automated recruitment process.

Furthermore, building trust with stakeholders, including job applicants, employees, and the broader community, is crucial for the long-term success and social legitimacy of algorithmic automation. This ethical algorithmic governance, measured and managed proactively, ensures that advanced automation is not only efficient and effective but also responsible and trustworthy, contributing to a sustainable and ethical business model in the age of AI.

In the advanced stage of automation, success is no longer solely defined by traditional efficiency metrics. It encompasses algorithmic agility, predictive foresight, hyper-customer centricity, innovation velocity, and ethical governance. For SMBs operating in the age of algorithmic business, these advanced metrics provide a more holistic and strategic framework for assessing the true impact of automation and ensuring that it drives not only operational improvements but also business model transformation, competitive differentiation, and long-term sustainable growth. It is about evolving from measuring automation as a tool to managing automation as a strategic business paradigm.

References

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• Davenport, Thomas H., and Julia Kirby. Only Humans Need Apply ● Winners and Losers in the Age of Smart Machines. Harper Business, 2016.
• Manyika, James, et al. A Future That Works ● Automation, Employment, and Productivity. McKinsey Global Institute, 2017.
• Schwab, Klaus. The Fourth Industrial Revolution. World Economic Forum, 2016.