Fundamentals

Consider the small tech startup in Berlin, eager to adopt agile methodologies, only to find their sprints derailed by unspoken disagreements and missed deadlines. This isn’t a tale of incompetence, but a quiet clash of cultures, a reminder that even the most streamlined processes are filtered through the lens of deeply ingrained cultural dimensions. For small to medium-sized businesses (SMBs), especially those embracing agile frameworks, these cultural dimensions Meaning ● Cultural Dimensions are the frameworks that help SMBs understand and adapt to diverse cultural values for effective global business operations. are not abstract theories; they are the invisible architects of daily operations, influencing everything from team communication to strategic decision-making.

Decoding Cultural Dimensions

Culture, in a business context, is often simplified, yet it’s a complex, multi-layered system of shared values, beliefs, and norms that shape how individuals and groups behave. Think of it as the operating system of a society, influencing how people perceive time, hierarchy, communication, and risk. These dimensions are not monolithic; they exist on a spectrum, and understanding where a particular culture falls on this spectrum is crucial for SMBs aiming for agile success.

Cultural dimensions are the unseen currents shaping the flow of agile processes within SMBs, often determining success or failure.

Several frameworks attempt to categorize these dimensions, offering lenses through which to understand cultural differences. One of the most widely recognized is Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, which initially identified six key dimensions ● Power Distance, Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-Term versus Short-Term Orientation, and Indulgence versus Restraint. These dimensions, while sometimes debated and refined over time, provide a valuable starting point for SMBs to assess their own cultural context and that of their partners, employees, and customers.

Power Distance ● Hierarchy and Equality

Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. In high power distance cultures, hierarchy is deeply ingrained, and employees are less likely to question authority. SMBs operating in such cultures might find that agile’s emphasis on flat hierarchies and self-organizing teams clashes with deeply held beliefs about leadership and decision-making.

Imagine an SMB in India, where power distance tends to be high. Implementing agile might require a conscious effort to empower team members and encourage open communication, potentially challenging traditional management styles.

Individualism Versus Collectivism ● Me or We?

This dimension explores the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. Individualistic cultures prioritize personal achievement and independence, while collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and loyalty. Agile methodologies, with their focus on teamwork and collaboration, might seem inherently collectivist. However, the underlying values of individualism can still influence how agile is implemented in certain cultures.

Consider an SMB in the United States, a highly individualistic culture. While teamwork is valued, individual contributions and recognition might be more emphasized than in a collectivist culture like Japan, where team success often overshadows individual accolades.

Masculinity Versus Femininity ● Competition or Cooperation?

Masculinity in this context refers to societies that value achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Femininity, conversely, stands for societies that value cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and quality of life. This dimension impacts workplace dynamics significantly.

In masculine cultures, competition might be seen as a natural and even desirable aspect of agile sprints, while in feminine cultures, collaboration and consensus-building might be prioritized, potentially influencing sprint goals and team interactions. An SMB in a masculine culture like Germany might find a more competitive edge in their agile teams, whereas an SMB in a more feminine culture like Sweden might foster a more collaborative and supportive agile environment.

Uncertainty Avoidance ● Embracing or Avoiding Ambiguity?

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance prefer structured environments, clear rules, and predictability. Agile, with its iterative and adaptive nature, inherently involves a degree of uncertainty. SMBs in high uncertainty avoidance cultures might find it challenging to embrace the flexibility and change inherent in agile.

Think of an SMB in Greece, characterized by high uncertainty avoidance. Implementing agile might necessitate providing clear frameworks, detailed plans, and frequent communication to alleviate anxiety and build trust in the process.

Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation ● Future or Present Focus?

This dimension, later added to Hofstede’s framework, relates to the extent to which societies prioritize future rewards over immediate gratification. Long-term oriented cultures value perseverance, thrift, and investment in the future, while short-term oriented cultures emphasize immediate results, tradition, and fulfilling social obligations. Agile’s iterative nature and focus on delivering value incrementally might align well with short-term orientation, but the long-term strategic vision of agile transformation might require a shift in perspective for SMBs in short-term oriented cultures. An SMB in China, a long-term oriented culture, might readily adopt agile with a focus on long-term strategic benefits, while an SMB in Nigeria, potentially more short-term oriented, might need to see quicker, more tangible results to fully embrace agile.

Indulgence Versus Restraint ● Gratification or Control?

The indulgence versus restraint dimension reflects the extent to which societies allow or suppress gratification of basic human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Indulgent cultures tend to be more optimistic, value leisure, and prioritize personal happiness, while restrained cultures emphasize control, duty, and social norms. This dimension can influence workplace culture and employee motivation within agile SMBs.

In indulgent cultures, a more relaxed and fun-oriented agile environment might be effective, while in restrained cultures, a more structured and disciplined approach might be preferred. An SMB in Mexico, an indulgent culture, might foster a vibrant and enjoyable agile team environment, while an SMB in Russia, a more restrained culture, might emphasize efficiency and adherence to process in their agile implementation.

Agile SMBs ● A Unique Intersection

SMBs adopting agile methodologies Meaning ● Agile methodologies, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), represent a suite of iterative project management approaches aimed at fostering flexibility and rapid response to changing market demands. are not just smaller versions of large corporations. They operate with unique constraints and advantages. Resource limitations, rapid growth phases, and close-knit teams are hallmarks of many agile SMBs. These characteristics amplify the impact of cultural dimensions.

In a large multinational, cultural clashes might be buffered by layers of management and formalized processes. In an SMB, cultural nuances are immediately felt, impacting team dynamics, client interactions, and even the very survival of the business.

For instance, an SMB aiming to automate its customer service Meaning ● Customer service, within the context of SMB growth, involves providing assistance and support to customers before, during, and after a purchase, a vital function for business survival. processes using agile sprints might encounter cultural resistance if employees from high power distance cultures are hesitant to challenge established procedures, even if those procedures are inefficient. Similarly, an SMB expanding into a new international market might find that their agile marketing campaigns, designed for an individualistic culture, fall flat in a collectivist society where community and word-of-mouth are more influential. Implementation of new technologies, crucial for SMB growth Meaning ● SMB Growth is the strategic expansion of small to medium businesses focusing on sustainable value, ethical practices, and advanced automation for long-term success. and automation, can also be hampered by cultural differences in uncertainty avoidance. Employees from cultures with high uncertainty avoidance might be resistant to adopting new, untested software, preferring familiar, albeit less efficient, systems.

Understanding these fundamental cultural dimensions is not about stereotyping or making generalizations. It is about developing cultural intelligence, the ability to recognize and adapt to cultural differences in a nuanced and respectful way. For agile SMBs, this cultural intelligence Meaning ● Cultural Intelligence for SMBs is the ability to effectively navigate diverse cultures, crucial for SMB growth and automation in a globalized market. is not a luxury; it is a core competency, essential for navigating the complexities of a globalized business environment and building truly effective, adaptable, and culturally sensitive organizations.

SMBs that cultivate cultural intelligence are better positioned to leverage agile methodologies for sustainable growth Meaning ● Sustainable SMB growth is balanced expansion, mitigating risks, valuing stakeholders, and leveraging automation for long-term resilience and positive impact. and impactful automation.

The journey to agile success for SMBs is not solely about mastering scrum or kanban. It is about understanding the human element, the cultural fabric that shapes how teams collaborate, innovate, and ultimately, succeed. By acknowledging and addressing cultural dimensions, SMBs can unlock the true potential of agile, transforming not just their processes, but their entire organizational culture Meaning ● Organizational culture is the shared personality of an SMB, shaping behavior and impacting success. into one that is both agile and culturally intelligent.

Intermediate

Beyond the foundational understanding of cultural dimensions, agile SMBs Meaning ● Agile SMBs represent a strategic approach enabling Small and Medium-sized Businesses to rapidly adapt and respond to market changes, leverage automation for increased efficiency, and implement new business processes with minimal disruption. encounter a more intricate landscape when these dimensions interact with the practicalities of business operations. Consider a scenario ● an agile SMB Meaning ● Agile SMB refers to the adoption of agile methodologies within small to medium-sized businesses to enhance their capacity for rapid growth and adaptability. in the United States collaborates with a development team in Ukraine. Superficially, both entities operate within a framework of agile principles.

However, subtle yet significant cultural differences in communication styles, decision-making processes, and approaches to feedback can create friction, hindering project velocity and potentially jeopardizing the partnership. This is where a deeper, intermediate-level analysis of cultural dimensions becomes indispensable.

Navigating Cultural Frameworks in Agile Practice

While Hofstede’s framework provides a valuable starting point, other models offer complementary perspectives. Trompenaars’ and Hampden-Turner’s Seven Dimensions of Culture, for example, introduces dimensions like Universalism versus Particularism (rules versus relationships) and Specific versus Diffuse (private versus public life), which are highly relevant to agile SMBs operating internationally. GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) research expands on Hofstede’s work, offering a more contemporary and nuanced understanding of cultural dimensions, particularly in leadership contexts. For SMBs, understanding these frameworks is not an academic exercise; it is a practical toolkit for diagnosing and addressing culturally rooted challenges in agile implementation.

Universalism Versus Particularism ● Rules or Relationships in Agile?

Universalistic cultures prioritize rules, laws, and contracts, applying them consistently across situations. Particularistic cultures, conversely, emphasize relationships, context, and individual circumstances, allowing for flexibility in rule application. Agile methodologies, with their emphasis on iterative processes and defined roles, might appear universalistic in nature. However, the degree to which rules are strictly adhered to or adapted based on relationships can vary significantly across cultures.

An SMB operating in a universalistic culture like Switzerland might expect strict adherence to sprint timelines and defined roles, while an SMB collaborating with a particularistic culture like China might need to build stronger personal relationships and allow for more flexibility in project execution. Misalignment in this dimension can lead to misunderstandings, especially in distributed agile teams, where differing expectations about rule adherence can cause friction and delays.

Specific Versus Diffuse ● Professional and Personal Boundaries

This dimension explores how cultures delineate private and public life. Specific cultures maintain clear boundaries between work and personal life, with relationships often compartmentalized. Diffuse cultures, on the other hand, view work and personal life as more intertwined, with relationships extending beyond professional contexts. In agile SMBs, particularly those with flat hierarchies and close-knit teams, this dimension can influence team dynamics and communication styles.

An SMB in a specific culture like the United Kingdom might value professional boundaries and direct, task-focused communication, while an SMB working with a diffuse culture like Brazil might find relationship-building and informal communication crucial for team cohesion and effective collaboration. Understanding these differences is vital for fostering trust and avoiding misinterpretations in agile teams, especially when dealing with feedback and conflict resolution.

Sequential Versus Synchronic Time ● Linear or Cyclical Project Management

Another critical dimension, particularly relevant to agile project management, is the perception of time. Sequential cultures view time as linear, with a focus on schedules, deadlines, and completing tasks in a step-by-step manner. Synchronic cultures perceive time as cyclical, with a more flexible approach to schedules, emphasizing relationships and context over strict timelines. Agile methodologies, while iterative, often operate within time-boxed sprints, potentially aligning more closely with sequential time perception.

However, SMBs working across cultures need to be aware of differing time orientations. An SMB in a sequential culture like Germany might prioritize strict adherence to sprint schedules, while an SMB collaborating with a synchronic culture like Saudi Arabia might need to build in more flexibility and allow for potential adjustments to timelines based on evolving circumstances and relationship dynamics. Ignoring this dimension can lead to frustration and missed deadlines, particularly in cross-cultural agile projects.

Practical Implications for Agile SMB Growth and Automation

The impact of cultural dimensions extends beyond team dynamics, directly influencing SMB growth and automation Meaning ● SMB Growth and Automation denotes the strategic integration of technological solutions to streamline operations, enhance productivity, and drive revenue within small and medium-sized businesses. strategies. Consider automation implementation. In cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, employees might resist automated systems due to fear of job displacement or discomfort with new technologies.

SMBs in such contexts need to invest in change management Meaning ● Change Management in SMBs is strategically guiding organizational evolution for sustained growth and adaptability in a dynamic environment. strategies that address these cultural anxieties, emphasizing training, transparency, and demonstrating the benefits of automation for both the business and individual employees. Conversely, in cultures with lower uncertainty avoidance and higher indulgence, employees might be more readily accepting of automation, viewing it as an opportunity for efficiency and innovation.

SMB growth strategies, particularly international expansion, are also profoundly shaped by cultural dimensions. Marketing campaigns, product localization, and customer service approaches need to be culturally adapted to resonate with target markets. An agile SMB expanding into a collectivist culture might need to shift its marketing focus from individual benefits to community impact, emphasizing social proof and word-of-mouth marketing. Customer service interactions also need to be culturally sensitive.

In high power distance cultures, customers might expect more formal and hierarchical communication, while in low power distance cultures, a more informal and direct approach might be preferred. Agile SMBs that fail to account for these cultural nuances risk alienating customers and hindering their growth potential in new markets.

Furthermore, leadership styles Meaning ● Leadership styles in SMBs are dynamic approaches to guide teams, adapt to change, and drive sustainable growth. in agile SMBs need to be culturally attuned. Transformational leadership, often associated with agile environments, might be perceived differently across cultures. In high power distance cultures, a more directive leadership style might be expected, while in low power distance cultures, a more participative and empowering approach might be more effective.

Agile SMB leaders need to develop cross-cultural leadership skills, adapting their communication, feedback, and motivational strategies to resonate with diverse teams Meaning ● Diverse teams, within the SMB growth context, refer to groups purposefully constructed with varied backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives to enhance innovation and problem-solving. and stakeholders. This cultural adaptability is not just about being polite; it is about building trust, fostering collaboration, and maximizing the potential of diverse talent pools.

Culturally intelligent leadership is the linchpin for agile SMBs seeking sustainable growth and successful automation across diverse markets.

To effectively integrate cultural dimensions into agile SMB strategies, a systematic approach is required. This involves cultural assessment, training, and adaptation. Cultural assessment Meaning ● Cultural assessment, within the context of small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs), refers to the systematic evaluation of an organization's shared values, beliefs, and practices to understand how they impact growth, automation initiatives, and the successful implementation of new strategies. tools, based on frameworks like Hofstede’s or GLOBE, can help SMBs understand their own cultural profile and that of their target markets or partners. Cross-cultural training programs can equip employees with the knowledge and skills to navigate cultural differences effectively.

Adaptation involves tailoring agile processes, communication strategies, and leadership styles to align with the cultural context. This is not about abandoning agile principles, but about implementing them in a culturally sensitive and contextually appropriate manner. Agile, by its very nature, is about adaptation, and cultural adaptation Meaning ● Cultural adaptation, within the context of SMB growth, concerns the modifications a business makes to its operational strategies, product offerings, or marketing initiatives to align with the cultural norms, values, and preferences of a new or expanding market. is a crucial facet of agile success for SMBs operating in a globalized world.

In essence, the intermediate level of understanding cultural dimensions for agile SMBs is about moving beyond awareness to application. It is about using cultural frameworks as practical tools to diagnose challenges, adapt strategies, and build culturally intelligent organizations that are not just agile in process, but agile in mindset, capable of thriving in diverse and dynamic business environments.

SMBs that proactively integrate cultural dimensions into their agile strategies gain a competitive edge in global markets.

The journey of an agile SMB is one of continuous learning and adaptation. Cultural dimensions are not static; they evolve over time and are influenced by various factors. Therefore, ongoing cultural monitoring and adaptation are essential.

Agile methodologies, with their iterative feedback loops and emphasis on continuous improvement, provide a perfect framework for this ongoing cultural adaptation. By embracing cultural intelligence as a core organizational value, agile SMBs can unlock new levels of innovation, collaboration, and sustainable growth in an increasingly interconnected world.

Table 1 ● Cultural Dimensions and Agile SMB Practices

List 1 ● Practical Steps for Cultural Assessment in Agile SMBs

1. Utilize Cultural Frameworks ● Employ frameworks like Hofstede’s, Trompenaars’, or GLOBE to understand cultural dimensions.
2. Conduct Surveys and Questionnaires ● Administer culturally validated surveys to assess team and organizational cultural profiles.
3. Hold Focus Groups and Interviews ● Facilitate discussions with diverse team members to gather qualitative insights into cultural nuances.
4. Observe Workplace Dynamics ● Analyze team interactions, communication patterns, and decision-making processes for cultural indicators.
5. Seek Expert Consultation ● Engage cross-cultural consultants to provide specialized guidance and analysis.

Advanced

Moving beyond intermediate applications, the impact of business cultural dimensions on agile SMBs transcends operational adjustments and enters the realm of strategic organizational design and long-term competitive advantage. Consider an agile SMB aiming for disruptive innovation within a global market. Simply adapting agile practices to superficial cultural norms is insufficient.

True competitive differentiation arises from deeply embedding cultural intelligence into the very DNA of the organization, leveraging cultural diversity Meaning ● Cultural diversity in SMBs is strategically integrating diverse backgrounds to foster innovation, enhance market reach, and achieve sustainable growth. as a source of innovation and strategic agility. This advanced perspective necessitates a critical examination of how cultural dimensions interact with organizational culture, leadership paradigms, and the strategic implementation of automation and growth initiatives.

Cultural Synergy and Organizational Agility

At the advanced level, the focus shifts from mitigating cultural differences to leveraging cultural synergy. Cultural synergy, in this context, is not merely about tolerance or accommodation; it is about actively creating organizational cultures that capitalize on the strengths of diverse cultural perspectives. This requires a move beyond simply understanding Hofstede’s dimensions to actively designing organizational structures, processes, and leadership approaches that foster cross-cultural collaboration and innovation. Agile methodologies, with their emphasis on iterative development and feedback loops, provide a fertile ground for cultivating cultural synergy, but only if intentionally designed and implemented with cultural intelligence as a guiding principle.

Organizational Culture as a Cultural Amplifier

Organizational culture itself is a potent cultural dimension, often acting as an amplifier or moderator of national cultural influences. An agile SMB might operate in a high power distance country, but intentionally cultivate a flat, empowering organizational culture. Conversely, an SMB in a low power distance country might inadvertently develop a hierarchical organizational culture due to leadership styles or internal processes. The interplay between national and organizational culture is complex and dynamic.

Advanced agile SMBs recognize that organizational culture is not just a reflection of national culture; it is a strategic tool that can be consciously shaped to enhance agility and cross-cultural effectiveness. This requires a deep understanding of how different organizational culture types interact with national cultural dimensions and how to strategically cultivate an organizational culture that fosters cultural synergy.

Leadership Paradigms for Cultural Agility

Traditional leadership models often fall short in culturally diverse agile SMBs. Transformational leadership, while emphasizing vision and inspiration, might still be rooted in specific cultural assumptions about leadership and motivation. Advanced agile SMBs require a shift towards culturally intelligent leadership, a paradigm that emphasizes adaptability, empathy, and cross-cultural communication Meaning ● Bridging cultural differences for effective SMB global growth and innovation. skills.

Culturally intelligent leaders are not just aware of cultural differences; they are adept at navigating cultural complexities, fostering inclusive environments, and leveraging diverse perspectives to drive innovation and strategic decision-making. This leadership paradigm requires continuous self-reflection, cultural sensitivity training, and a commitment to building leadership teams that represent the cultural diversity of the organization and its global markets.

Strategic Automation and Cultural Alignment

Automation, at the advanced level, is not just about efficiency gains; it is a strategic tool that can be used to enhance cultural agility Meaning ● Cultural Agility for SMBs is the dynamic ability to adapt core values and practices for growth and automation. and global competitiveness. However, the implementation of automation technologies must be culturally aligned to be truly effective. In cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, automation initiatives might need to be framed as tools for enhancing job security and improving work-life balance, rather than as potential job replacements. In collectivist cultures, automation implementation Meaning ● Strategic integration of tech to boost SMB efficiency, growth, and competitiveness. might need to emphasize team-based benefits and collective efficiency gains, rather than individual productivity metrics.

Advanced agile SMBs strategically leverage automation to bridge cultural divides, enhance cross-cultural communication, and create more inclusive and efficient global operations. This requires a nuanced understanding of how different cultural dimensions influence technology adoption and a culturally sensitive approach to change management.

Strategic automation, when culturally aligned, becomes a catalyst for enhanced agility and global competitiveness in SMBs.

Furthermore, the very concept of “agile” itself is not culturally neutral. The emphasis on speed, iteration, and rapid adaptation might resonate more strongly in some cultures than others. In cultures that value long-term planning and stability, a purely agile approach might be perceived as chaotic or lacking strategic direction.

Advanced agile SMBs recognize that agile methodologies need to be culturally contextualized, adapted, and integrated with broader strategic frameworks that account for cultural nuances in risk perception, decision-making, and long-term orientation. This requires a move beyond a dogmatic adherence to agile frameworks to a more nuanced and culturally intelligent application of agile principles.

To achieve this advanced level of cultural integration, agile SMBs need to invest in sophisticated cultural analytics, develop culturally adaptive organizational structures, and cultivate a culture of continuous cultural learning. Cultural analytics Meaning ● Cultural Analytics, within the framework of SMB growth, automation, and implementation, represents the strategic interpretation of large-scale cultural data to gain actionable business insights. involves using data-driven approaches to understand cultural dynamics within the organization and its global markets. This might involve analyzing communication patterns, collaboration networks, and employee feedback data to identify cultural strengths and challenges.

Culturally adaptive organizational structures might involve creating cross-cultural teams with diverse cultural representation at all levels of the organization, fostering global virtual teams, and decentralizing decision-making to empower culturally diverse teams. A culture of continuous cultural learning requires ongoing cultural training, mentorship programs, and knowledge-sharing platforms that promote cross-cultural understanding and collaboration.

Table 2 ● Advanced Strategies for Cultural Integration Meaning ● Harmonizing new elements (tech, processes) within an SMB's culture to drive growth and efficiency. in Agile SMBs

List 2 ● Key Research Areas in Cultural Dimensions and Agile SMBs

• The Impact of National Culture on Agile Team Performance ● Studies exploring the relationship between specific cultural dimensions and agile team effectiveness.
• Organizational Culture and Cultural Synergy Meaning ● Cultural Synergy in SMBs amplifies collective strengths for exponential growth and innovation. in Agile SMBs ● Research investigating how organizational culture can be strategically shaped to leverage cultural diversity.
• Culturally Intelligent Leadership in Global Agile Environments ● Studies examining the competencies and effectiveness of culturally intelligent leaders in agile SMBs.
• Cultural Adaptation of Agile Methodologies ● Research exploring best practices for adapting agile frameworks to different cultural contexts.
• The Role of Technology in Bridging Cultural Divides in Agile SMBs ● Studies investigating how technology can be used to enhance cross-cultural communication and collaboration in agile environments.

The advanced understanding of cultural dimensions for agile SMBs is about recognizing that culture is not just a contextual factor; it is a strategic asset. SMBs that master cultural intelligence at this level are not just adapting to a globalized world; they are actively shaping it, leveraging cultural diversity to drive innovation, build stronger global brands, and achieve sustainable competitive advantage in an increasingly interconnected and culturally complex business landscape.

For agile SMBs, cultural intelligence is not a soft skill; it is a hard-edged strategic imperative for long-term success.

The journey to becoming a culturally agile SMB is a continuous evolution, a process of ongoing learning, adaptation, and strategic refinement. It requires a commitment to cultural intelligence at all levels of the organization, from leadership to individual team members. It is a journey that demands not just awareness of cultural differences, but a deep appreciation for cultural diversity as a source of strength and innovation. For those agile SMBs willing to embark on this journey, the rewards are substantial ● enhanced global competitiveness, sustainable growth, and the ability to thrive in a world where cultural intelligence is not just an advantage, but a necessity.

In conclusion, the advanced perspective on cultural dimensions and agile SMBs is about embracing cultural complexity as a strategic opportunity, transforming cultural diversity from a potential challenge into a powerful engine for innovation, growth, and sustained global success. It is about building organizations that are not just agile in process, but culturally agile in their very essence, capable of navigating the intricacies of a globalized world with both strategic acumen and cultural intelligence.

References

• Hofstede, Geert. Culture’s Consequences ● Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. 2nd ed., Sage Publications, 2001.
• Trompenaars, Fons, and Charles Hampden-Turner. Riding the Waves of Culture ● Understanding Cultural Diversity in Global Business. 2nd ed., Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 1997.
• House, Robert J., et al., editors. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations ● The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Sage Publications, 2004.