Fundamentals

Consider this ● a local bakery, famed for its sourdough, still manages orders with pen and paper. Errors creep in, staff gets flustered during rush hour, and customers occasionally receive the wrong pastry. This isn’t some quaint anachronism; it’s the daily reality for countless small to medium-sized businesses.

They’re caught in a whirlwind of manual tasks, missing opportunities hidden in plain sight. Automation, often perceived as a corporate behemoth’s playground, actually holds the key to unlocking efficiency for these very businesses, not as a futuristic fantasy, but as a practical, down-to-earth tool.

Reclaiming Time From Tedium

Time, for an SMB, is currency more precious than venture capital. Every hour spent on repetitive, manual processes is an hour stolen from strategic growth, customer engagement, or simply, a well-deserved breather for the owner. Think about invoicing. Manually creating, sending, and tracking invoices is a time sink.

Automation sweeps in, generating invoices automatically upon order completion, sending reminders for overdue payments, and reconciling accounts without human intervention. This reclaimed time isn’t just about cutting costs; it’s about reinvesting in activities that propel the business forward.

SMB automation isn’t about replacing humans; it’s about freeing them from robotic tasks to focus on uniquely human contributions.

Accuracy Ascends, Errors Evaporate

Human error is inevitable. In manual data entry, order processing, or inventory management, mistakes happen. These errors aren’t minor inconveniences; they can lead to lost revenue, dissatisfied customers, and damaged reputations. Automation minimizes these errors.

Imagine an e-commerce store. Without automated inventory updates, a business might oversell products, leading to order cancellations and frustrated buyers. Automated systems track stock levels in real-time, preventing such mishaps and ensuring order fulfillment Meaning ● Order fulfillment, within the realm of SMB growth, automation, and implementation, signifies the complete process from when a customer places an order to when they receive it, encompassing warehousing, picking, packing, shipping, and delivery. is smooth and reliable. Accuracy isn’t just about avoiding mistakes; it’s about building trust and reliability, cornerstones of SMB success.

Consistent Quality, Every Single Time

Consistency is a hallmark of professionalism. Customers expect a certain level of quality in products and services, regardless of who handles their interaction or when they make a purchase. Manual processes often lead to inconsistencies. One employee might follow a slightly different procedure than another, resulting in variable customer experiences.

Automation standardizes processes. Customer service Meaning ● Customer service, within the context of SMB growth, involves providing assistance and support to customers before, during, and after a purchase, a vital function for business survival. chatbots, for instance, provide consistent responses to common queries, ensuring every customer receives prompt and accurate information, regardless of the time of day or staff availability. This consistency builds brand loyalty and reinforces a reputation for dependable service. Quality isn’t just about product features; it’s about the entire customer journey, delivered consistently.

Scalability Without Straining

Growth is the aspiration of every SMB. However, scaling operations manually can be incredibly challenging. Hiring more staff, managing increased workloads with existing systems, and maintaining quality during expansion often lead to operational bottlenecks and strained resources. Automation provides a pathway to scalability without overwhelming the business.

Consider customer relationship management Meaning ● CRM for SMBs is about building strong customer relationships through data-driven personalization and a balance of automation with human touch. (CRM) systems. As a business grows, managing customer interactions becomes complex. Automated CRM systems Meaning ● CRM Systems, in the context of SMB growth, serve as a centralized platform to manage customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle; this boosts SMB capabilities. organize customer data, track interactions, and automate follow-ups, enabling SMBs to handle a larger customer base efficiently without a proportional increase in manual workload. Scalability isn’t just about handling more volume; it’s about adapting to growth gracefully and sustainably.

Cost-Effectiveness Beyond Cutting Corners

Cost savings are often the first thing that comes to mind when discussing automation. While automation can certainly reduce labor costs by streamlining processes and minimizing errors, its cost-effectiveness extends far beyond simple cuts. Automated systems often operate 24/7, increasing productivity without overtime expenses. They reduce waste by optimizing resource allocation Meaning ● Strategic allocation of SMB assets for optimal growth and efficiency. and minimizing errors that lead to rework or losses.

Furthermore, the time saved through automation allows employees to focus on higher-value tasks, generating more revenue per employee. Cost-effectiveness isn’t just about reducing expenses; it’s about optimizing resource utilization and maximizing revenue generation.

Empowering Employees, Not Replacing Them

A common misconception surrounding automation is that it leads to job displacement. For SMBs, this fear can be particularly acute, where employees often wear multiple hats and are deeply integrated into the business fabric. However, SMB automation, when implemented strategically, should empower employees, not replace them. By automating mundane, repetitive tasks, businesses free up their employees to focus on more engaging, creative, and strategic work.

Imagine a marketing team. Automating social media posting and email marketing Meaning ● Email marketing, within the small and medium-sized business (SMB) arena, constitutes a direct digital communication strategy leveraged to cultivate customer relationships, disseminate targeted promotions, and drive sales growth. allows marketers to spend more time on campaign strategy, content creation, and customer relationship building, activities that require human creativity and strategic thinking. Employee empowerment isn’t just about job security; it’s about enhancing job satisfaction and unlocking human potential within the business.

Simple Steps, Significant Shifts

Embarking on the automation journey doesn’t require a massive overhaul or a hefty investment in complex systems. For SMBs, starting small and focusing on key pain points is often the most effective approach. Simple automation tools, like scheduling software for appointments, automated email responders for customer inquiries, or basic accounting software, can yield immediate and noticeable improvements in efficiency. These initial successes build momentum and demonstrate the tangible benefits of automation, paving the way for more comprehensive implementations in the future.

Significant shifts often begin with simple steps, and SMB automation Meaning ● SMB Automation: Streamlining SMB operations with technology to boost efficiency, reduce costs, and drive sustainable growth. is no exception. It’s about identifying those initial points of friction and applying targeted automation solutions to create a ripple effect of efficiency gains Meaning ● Efficiency Gains, within the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), represent the quantifiable improvements in operational productivity and resource utilization realized through strategic initiatives such as automation and process optimization. throughout the business.

Table 1 ● Automation Entry Points for SMBs

Beyond the Bottom Line, Building a Better Business

Operational efficiency, while crucial, isn’t the sole benefit of SMB automation. It’s a stepping stone to building a more resilient, adaptable, and customer-centric business. By streamlining operations, SMBs gain the agility to respond quickly to market changes, the capacity to innovate and develop new offerings, and the bandwidth to focus on building stronger customer relationships.

Automation isn’t just about improving the bottom line; it’s about enhancing the overall business ecosystem, creating a more sustainable and thriving enterprise in the long run. It’s about laying the groundwork for future growth and ensuring the business is not just efficient today, but also prepared for tomorrow’s challenges and opportunities.

Intermediate

The initial allure of SMB automation often centers on surface-level efficiencies ● faster invoicing, quicker customer responses, reduced data entry errors. However, to truly leverage automation’s transformative power, SMBs must move beyond these tactical gains and delve into strategic operational optimization. This involves understanding automation not as a collection of tools, but as a fundamental shift in business process design, data utilization, and competitive positioning.

Process Re-Engineering Through Automation

Simply automating existing inefficient processes merely digitizes dysfunction. True operational efficiency Meaning ● Maximizing SMB output with minimal, ethical input for sustainable growth and future readiness. gains arise from re-engineering processes with automation in mind. This requires a critical assessment of current workflows, identifying bottlenecks, redundancies, and manual touchpoints that hinder flow. Consider a service-based SMB, like a plumbing company.

Their current process might involve manual scheduling, dispatching technicians via phone calls, and paper-based invoicing. Re-engineering this process with automation could involve implementing a digital scheduling system, GPS-enabled dispatching, and mobile invoicing. This isn’t just automating tasks; it’s fundamentally redesigning the service delivery process for optimal efficiency and customer experience. Process re-engineering isn’t about automating the old way; it’s about designing a new, streamlined way of operating.

Strategic SMB automation demands process re-engineering, not just task digitization, to unlock true operational efficiency.

Data-Driven Decisions, Automated Insights

Automation generates data ● vast amounts of data on customer interactions, operational performance, and process efficiency. However, raw data is inert. The real value lies in extracting actionable insights from this data to drive informed decision-making. Automated reporting and analytics tools are crucial here.

For an e-commerce SMB, automation can track website traffic, conversion rates, customer purchase patterns, and inventory turnover. Automated reports can highlight underperforming product categories, identify peak sales periods, or reveal customer segments with high churn rates. These insights, delivered automatically, empower SMBs to make data-driven decisions Meaning ● Leveraging data analysis to guide SMB actions, strategies, and choices for informed growth and efficiency. on inventory management, marketing campaigns, and customer retention strategies. Data-driven decisions aren’t just about numbers; they’re about understanding business dynamics and acting strategically.

Workflow Orchestration for Seamless Operations

Individual automation tools, while beneficial, operate in silos if not properly integrated. Workflow orchestration connects these disparate systems, creating seamless operational flows across different business functions. Imagine a manufacturing SMB. They might use separate systems for inventory management, production scheduling, and shipping logistics.

Workflow orchestration platforms can integrate these systems, automating the entire order fulfillment process from raw material procurement to final delivery. When an order is placed, the system automatically checks inventory, schedules production, generates shipping labels, and updates the customer on order status, all without manual intervention. This orchestration eliminates data silos, reduces manual handoffs, and ensures smooth, end-to-end operational flow. Seamless operations aren’t just about individual tasks; they’re about the entire interconnected business ecosystem.

Personalization at Scale Through Automation

Customers today expect personalized experiences. For SMBs, delivering personalization manually can be resource-intensive and challenging to scale. Automation enables personalization at scale, allowing SMBs to cater to individual customer needs without sacrificing efficiency. Consider an online retailer.

Automated email marketing platforms can segment customers based on purchase history, browsing behavior, and demographics. Personalized email campaigns can then be triggered automatically, offering product recommendations tailored to individual preferences, sending birthday greetings with special offers, or providing customized content based on past interactions. This level of personalization, delivered consistently and efficiently through automation, enhances customer engagement and loyalty. Personalization at scale Meaning ● Personalization at Scale, in the realm of Small and Medium-sized Businesses, signifies the capability to deliver customized experiences to a large customer base without a proportionate increase in operational costs. isn’t just about targeted marketing; it’s about building stronger customer relationships Meaning ● Customer Relationships, within the framework of SMB expansion, automation processes, and strategic execution, defines the methodologies and technologies SMBs use to manage and analyze customer interactions throughout the customer lifecycle. in an automated world.

Predictive Capabilities for Proactive Management

Reactive management, constantly playing catch-up, is a drain on SMB resources. Automation, coupled with predictive analytics, enables proactive management, anticipating potential issues and opportunities before they arise. For a restaurant SMB, predictive analytics Meaning ● Strategic foresight through data for SMB success. can forecast demand based on historical data, weather patterns, and local events. Automated systems can then adjust staffing levels, optimize inventory orders, and even dynamically adjust pricing based on predicted demand.

This proactive approach minimizes waste, reduces stockouts, and ensures optimal resource allocation, leading to significant operational efficiency gains. Proactive management isn’t just about reacting to problems; it’s about anticipating and preventing them.

Cybersecurity Considerations in Automated Environments

Increased automation means increased reliance on digital systems, which in turn raises cybersecurity concerns. SMBs, often lacking dedicated IT security teams, are particularly vulnerable. Implementing automation without robust cybersecurity measures is a significant risk. Automated systems must be secured against cyber threats through measures like strong password policies, multi-factor authentication, regular security updates, and employee training on cybersecurity best practices.

Furthermore, data privacy regulations must be adhered to when automating processes that handle customer data. Cybersecurity isn’t just an IT issue; it’s a fundamental business risk that must be addressed when embracing automation. Secure automation isn’t just about technology; it’s about building trust and protecting business assets.

Employee Skill Enhancement for the Automation Age

As automation takes over routine tasks, the roles of employees evolve. SMBs must invest in upskilling and reskilling their workforce to adapt to this changing landscape. Employees need to develop skills in areas like data analysis, automation tool management, customer relationship management, and strategic problem-solving. For example, a customer service representative in an automated environment might spend less time answering basic queries and more time resolving complex issues, providing personalized support, and analyzing customer feedback to improve service processes.

Investing in employee skill enhancement Meaning ● Employee Skill Enhancement for SMBs: Strategically developing employee abilities to boost SMB growth, adaptability, and competitive edge. isn’t just about adapting to automation; it’s about unlocking new capabilities and fostering a more engaged and valuable workforce. A skilled workforce isn’t just about current tasks; it’s about future business adaptability and innovation.

List 1 ● Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) for Automation Success

• Process Efficiency Metrics ● Cycle time reduction, throughput increase, error rate reduction.
• Cost Reduction Metrics ● Labor cost savings, operational expense reduction, waste minimization.
• Customer Satisfaction Metrics ● Customer satisfaction Meaning ● Customer Satisfaction: Ensuring customer delight by consistently meeting and exceeding expectations, fostering loyalty and advocacy. scores, Net Promoter Score (NPS), customer retention rate.
• Employee Productivity Metrics ● Revenue per employee, task completion rate, employee satisfaction (related to task automation).
• Data-Driven Decision Making Metrics ● Frequency of data-informed decisions, impact of data-driven decisions on business outcomes.

Phased Implementation for Sustainable Automation

A “big bang” approach to automation implementation can be disruptive and overwhelming for SMBs. A phased approach, starting with pilot projects and gradually expanding automation across different areas, is more sustainable and less risky. Begin by automating a single, well-defined process, like invoice generation or email marketing. Measure the results, learn from the experience, and refine the approach before moving on to more complex automation initiatives.

This phased implementation allows SMBs to build internal expertise, manage change effectively, and demonstrate tangible ROI at each stage. Sustainable automation isn’t about immediate, sweeping changes; it’s about gradual, impactful improvements built over time. It’s about building internal capabilities and ensuring long-term success with automation.

Table 2 ● Phased Automation Implementation Roadmap

Beyond Efficiency, Towards Competitive Advantage

Operational efficiency gains from automation are not just about cost reduction; they are about building a competitive edge. SMBs that operate efficiently can offer better prices, faster service, and more personalized experiences, differentiating themselves in the market. Furthermore, automation frees up resources for innovation, allowing SMBs to develop new products, explore new markets, and adapt to changing customer needs more quickly than less efficient competitors.

Competitive advantage isn’t just about being better today; it’s about being positioned for sustained success in a dynamic market. Automation is a strategic weapon in the SMB arsenal, enabling them to compete effectively and thrive in an increasingly competitive landscape.

Advanced

Operational efficiency, when viewed through a contemporary business lens, transcends mere tactical improvements; it becomes a strategic imperative, a cornerstone of organizational agility and resilience in the face of accelerating market dynamism. For Small and Medium Businesses (SMBs), automation, therefore, is not simply a tool for cost reduction Meaning ● Cost Reduction, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses, signifies a proactive and sustained business strategy focused on minimizing expenditures while maintaining or improving operational efficiency and profitability. or error minimization, but a fundamental re-architecting of operational paradigms to achieve sustainable competitive advantage Meaning ● SMB Competitive Advantage: Ecosystem-embedded, hyper-personalized value, sustained by strategic automation, ensuring resilience & impact. and long-term value creation. This advanced perspective necessitates a deep dive into the multi-dimensional implications of SMB automation, exploring its intricate interplay with corporate strategy, growth trajectories, and the evolving landscape of business implementation.

The Strategic Imperative of Algorithmic Operations

In an era defined by data ubiquity and algorithmic decision-making, operational efficiency is increasingly synonymous with algorithmic operations. This concept extends beyond basic task automation Meaning ● Task Automation, within the SMB sector, denotes the strategic use of technology to execute repetitive business processes with minimal human intervention. to encompass the deployment of sophisticated algorithms and artificial intelligence Meaning ● AI empowers SMBs to augment capabilities, automate operations, and gain strategic foresight for sustainable growth. (AI) to optimize complex business processes, predict market fluctuations, and personalize customer experiences at scale. Research from publications like the Harvard Business Review and studies cited in MIT Sloan Management Review consistently highlight the competitive advantage accrued by organizations that embrace algorithmic operations. For SMBs, this translates to leveraging AI-powered tools for tasks ranging from demand forecasting and dynamic pricing to fraud detection and predictive maintenance.

Algorithmic operations aren’t just about automating tasks; they represent a shift towards data-driven, intelligent business ecosystems. They embody a move from reactive management to proactive, predictive strategies, fundamentally altering the operational DNA of the SMB.

Algorithmic operations represent the apex of SMB automation, transforming businesses into intelligent, adaptive entities.

Beyond Cost Savings ● Automation as a Value Multiplier

The conventional narrative surrounding automation often fixates on cost reduction as the primary driver. However, for strategically minded SMBs, automation’s true value lies in its capacity to act as a value multiplier across multiple dimensions. As articulated in business theory papers published in journals like the Academy of Management Journal, automation enhances not only efficiency but also innovation, customer centricity, and employee empowerment. By automating routine tasks, SMBs free up human capital to focus on higher-value activities such as product development, strategic partnerships, and customer relationship building.

Moreover, automation-driven data analytics provides invaluable insights into customer behavior and market trends, enabling SMBs to refine their offerings and tailor their strategies for maximum impact. This value multiplier effect transcends simple cost savings, generating exponential returns across the business value chain. Automation, in this context, becomes a strategic investment, not merely an operational expense reduction tactic.

Cross-Functional Synergies Through Integrated Automation Architectures

Isolated automation initiatives, while beneficial in localized contexts, often fail to realize their full potential due to a lack of cross-functional integration. Advanced SMB automation necessitates the development of integrated automation architectures that seamlessly connect disparate business functions, creating synergistic operational flows. Drawing upon systems thinking principles prevalent in contemporary business management literature, an integrated approach to automation breaks down functional silos and fosters holistic process optimization. For instance, integrating CRM, ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), and marketing automation systems allows for a unified view of the customer journey, enabling personalized marketing campaigns, streamlined order fulfillment, and proactive customer service.

These cross-functional synergies generate emergent efficiencies that are significantly greater than the sum of individual automation efforts. Integrated automation architectures are about building interconnected business ecosystems, not just automating individual departments.

Dynamic Resource Allocation and Real-Time Optimization

Traditional operational models often rely on static resource allocation, leading to inefficiencies and missed opportunities in dynamic market environments. Advanced automation, particularly when coupled with real-time data Meaning ● Instantaneous information enabling SMBs to make agile, data-driven decisions and gain a competitive edge. analytics and AI-powered decision-making, enables dynamic resource allocation Meaning ● Agile resource shifting to seize opportunities & navigate market shifts, driving SMB growth. and real-time optimization. Research in operations management, as presented in publications like Production and Operations Management, emphasizes the benefits of adaptive systems that can adjust resource deployment based on fluctuating demand, market conditions, and operational performance. For SMBs, this translates to dynamically adjusting staffing levels in response to real-time customer traffic, optimizing inventory levels based on predictive demand forecasts, and dynamically pricing products based on market competition and customer behavior.

Real-time optimization transforms SMBs into agile, responsive organizations capable of adapting to change and capitalizing on emerging opportunities. Dynamic resource allocation is about building responsive businesses, not just static operational frameworks.

Human-Machine Collaboration ● The Augmented Workforce Paradigm

Concerns regarding job displacement due to automation are prevalent, yet an advanced perspective recognizes the potential for human-machine collaboration Meaning ● Strategic blend of human skills & machine intelligence for SMB growth and innovation. to create an augmented workforce Meaning ● Augmented Workforce, within the SMB landscape, signifies a strategic operational model where human capabilities are amplified by technological tools like automation and AI, promoting increased efficiency, improved output quality, and enhanced scalability. paradigm. Business psychology research and studies in human-computer interaction, as explored in journals like the Journal of Applied Psychology, highlight the synergistic potential of combining human cognitive abilities with machine processing power. In this paradigm, automation handles routine, repetitive tasks, freeing up human employees to focus on tasks requiring creativity, critical thinking, emotional intelligence, and complex problem-solving. For SMBs, this means re-designing job roles to leverage the strengths of both humans and machines, creating a workforce that is more productive, engaged, and adaptable.

The augmented workforce is about empowering employees, not replacing them, by leveraging automation to enhance human capabilities. It’s about creating a future of work where humans and machines collaborate to achieve superior business outcomes.

Ethical and Societal Implications of SMB Automation

As SMB automation becomes increasingly sophisticated and pervasive, ethical and societal implications warrant careful consideration. Business ethics literature and discussions in publications like Business Ethics Quarterly emphasize the importance of responsible automation practices that address potential biases in algorithms, ensure data privacy, and mitigate unintended social consequences. For SMBs, this includes being transparent about automation deployments, ensuring fairness and equity in algorithmic decision-making, and protecting customer data Meaning ● Customer Data, in the sphere of SMB growth, automation, and implementation, represents the total collection of information pertaining to a business's customers; it is gathered, structured, and leveraged to gain deeper insights into customer behavior, preferences, and needs to inform strategic business decisions. through robust cybersecurity measures. Furthermore, SMBs should consider the broader societal impact of automation, particularly in terms of workforce transition and community development.

Ethical automation isn’t just about compliance; it’s about building trust, fostering social responsibility, and ensuring that technological advancements benefit society as a whole. Responsible automation is about building sustainable businesses within a responsible societal framework.

The Future of SMB Automation ● Cognitive and Autonomous Operations

The trajectory of SMB automation points towards increasingly cognitive and autonomous operations. Emerging technologies like advanced AI, machine learning, and robotic process automation Meaning ● RPA for SMBs: Software robots automating routine tasks, boosting efficiency and enabling growth. (RPA) are paving the way for systems that can learn, adapt, and make decisions with minimal human intervention. Foresight studies and technological trend reports from organizations like Gartner and McKinsey project a future where SMBs can leverage cognitive automation to automate complex decision-making processes, personalize customer experiences in hyper-granular ways, and even anticipate future market disruptions. Autonomous operations, characterized by self-optimizing systems and minimal human oversight, represent the ultimate evolution of SMB automation.

This future vision necessitates proactive strategic planning, continuous technological adaptation, and a willingness to embrace radical operational transformation. Cognitive and autonomous operations Meaning ● Autonomous Operations, within the SMB domain, signifies the application of advanced automation technologies, like AI and machine learning, to enable business processes to function with minimal human intervention. are about building future-ready SMBs, not just optimizing current processes. It’s about embracing innovation and leading the way in the next wave of business evolution.

List 2 ● Advanced Automation Technologies for SMBs

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) ● Predictive analytics, personalized recommendations, intelligent chatbots, fraud detection.
• Robotic Process Automation (RPA) ● Automating repetitive, rule-based tasks across applications, data migration, report generation.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP) ● Sentiment analysis, text summarization, voice-activated interfaces, advanced customer service interactions.
• Internet of Things (IoT) and Industrial IoT (IIoT) ● Real-time data collection from connected devices, predictive maintenance, supply chain optimization.
• Cloud Computing and Edge Computing ● Scalable infrastructure for automation, distributed processing, real-time data analysis at the source.

Table 3 ● Strategic Automation Framework for SMBs

From Efficiency to Exponential Growth ● Automation as a Catalyst

In conclusion, SMB automation, when strategically conceived and implemented, transcends the limitations of incremental efficiency gains. It becomes a catalyst for exponential growth, driving not only operational excellence but also strategic differentiation, innovation, and long-term value creation. By embracing advanced automation Meaning ● Advanced Automation, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), signifies the strategic implementation of sophisticated technologies that move beyond basic task automation to drive significant improvements in business processes, operational efficiency, and scalability. technologies, adopting integrated automation architectures, and fostering a culture of human-machine collaboration, SMBs can transform themselves into agile, intelligent, and future-ready organizations, poised to thrive in an increasingly complex and competitive business landscape.

The journey towards operational efficiency through automation is not merely about optimizing processes; it is about fundamentally reshaping the SMB for sustained success and exponential growth in the decades to come. It’s about building businesses that are not just efficient, but exponentially effective.

References

• Brynjolfsson, Erik, and Andrew McAfee. “The Second Machine Age ● Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies.” W. W. Norton & Company, 2014.
• Davenport, Thomas H., and Julia Kirby. “Only Humans Need Apply ● Winners and Losers in the Age of Smart Machines.” Harper Business, 2016.
• Kaplan, Andreas, and Michael Haenlein. “Siri, Siri in my hand, who’s the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence.” Business Horizons, vol. 62, no. 1, 2019, pp. 15-25.
• Porter, Michael E., and James E. Heppelmann. “How Smart, Connected Products Are Transforming Competition.” Harvard Business Review, vol. 92, no. 11, 2014, pp. 64-88.
• Manyika, James, et al. “A Future That Works ● Automation, Employment, and Productivity.” McKinsey Global Institute, 2017.