Decoding Social Media Crisis Management Imperative For Small Businesses

Social media, a double-edged sword for small to medium businesses (SMBs), offers unparalleled opportunities for growth yet simultaneously presents significant crisis vulnerabilities. For SMBs, often operating with leaner resources and tighter margins, a social media crisis can escalate rapidly, damaging brand reputation, eroding customer trust, and impacting the bottom line. Ignoring crisis preparedness is no longer an option; it’s a business imperative. This guide provides a streamlined, actionable framework for SMBs to proactively manage social media crises, focusing on practical steps and readily available tools.

Understanding Social Media Crisis Landscape For Smbs

Before crafting a crisis management plan, SMBs must first understand the unique nature of social media crises in their context. Unlike large corporations with dedicated PR teams, SMBs often rely on a smaller team, sometimes even a single individual, to manage their online presence. This necessitates a crisis management approach that is efficient, easy to implement, and doesn’t require extensive resources.

Social media crises for SMBs can range from negative customer reviews going viral to public relations missteps by employees, or even external attacks like account hacking. The speed at which information disseminates online means a minor issue can quickly become a major crisis if not addressed promptly and effectively. The key difference for SMBs is the amplified impact; a crisis can feel disproportionately larger and more threatening compared to larger businesses with established buffers and broader market presence.

A proactive social media crisis management plan is not a luxury, but a necessity for SMBs to protect their brand and maintain customer trust Meaning ● Customer trust for SMBs is the confident reliance customers have in your business to consistently deliver value, act ethically, and responsibly use technology. in the digital age.

Proactive Crisis Prevention Essential First Steps

Prevention is always better than cure, especially in the fast-paced world of social media. For SMBs, proactive measures are not just about avoiding crises but also about building a stronger, more resilient online presence. Here are essential first steps for SMBs to take:

Establish Social Media Guidelines And Policies

A clear set of social media guidelines is the bedrock of proactive crisis prevention. This document should outline acceptable and unacceptable online behavior for all employees representing the business online, whether officially or unofficially. It should cover:

• Brand Voice and Tone ● Define how the business should communicate online ● formal, informal, friendly, professional. Consistency is key to brand recognition and avoiding misinterpretations.
• Content Guidelines ● Specify types of content that are appropriate and inappropriate to share on company social media channels. This includes topics to avoid (e.g., controversial political or social issues unless directly relevant to the business’s mission and values), and guidelines for sharing user-generated content.
• Employee Conduct ● Address employee behavior on their personal social media accounts, especially concerning mentions of the company or industry. Clarify expectations around confidentiality, respectful communication, and avoiding defamation or disparagement of competitors or customers.
• Crisis Escalation Procedures ● Outline the steps employees should take if they encounter a potential crisis online. This includes who to notify, what information to gather, and what actions are prohibited without authorization.

These guidelines should be readily accessible to all employees and regularly reviewed and updated to reflect changes in social media trends and business needs. Regular training sessions can reinforce these policies and ensure everyone understands their responsibilities.

Implement Basic Social Media Monitoring

Early detection is crucial in mitigating social media crises. SMBs need to establish basic social media monitoring Meaning ● Social Media Monitoring, for Small and Medium-sized Businesses, is the systematic observation and analysis of online conversations and mentions related to a brand, products, competitors, and industry trends. practices to identify potential issues before they escalate. Fortunately, numerous free or low-cost tools are available:

• Native Platform Monitoring ● Most social media platforms (Facebook, X, Instagram, LinkedIn) offer built-in notification systems that alert users to comments, mentions, and messages. Regularly checking these notifications is a simple but effective first step.
• Google Alerts ● Set up Google Alerts for your brand name, product names, and relevant keywords. This free service sends email notifications whenever these terms are mentioned online, including on social media platforms, forums, and blogs.
• Social Media Dashboards (Free Tiers) ● Platforms like TweetDeck (for X) and free tiers of social media management tools (Hootsuite Free, Buffer Free) allow SMBs to monitor multiple social media feeds in one place, track hashtags, and listen for brand mentions.

The focus of basic monitoring should be on identifying negative sentiment, emerging complaints, or unusual spikes in mentions. Designate a team member (even if it’s just part of their responsibilities) to regularly check these monitoring tools and report any potential issues.

Develop Pre-Approved Response Templates For Common Scenarios

In a crisis, speed and consistency are paramount. Pre-approved response templates can significantly expedite the response process and ensure consistent messaging. These templates are not meant to be rigid scripts but rather adaptable frameworks that can be quickly tailored to specific situations. Focus on creating templates for common negative scenarios such as:

• Customer Complaints ● Templates for acknowledging the complaint, expressing empathy, and offering to resolve the issue offline (e.g., via direct message or email).
• Service Disruptions ● Templates for announcing service outages, providing updates on resolution progress, and apologizing for inconvenience.
• Misunderstandings or Misinformation ● Templates for clarifying factual inaccuracies and correcting misinformation in a calm and professional manner.

These templates should be reviewed and approved in advance by relevant stakeholders (e.g., owner, manager, customer service Meaning ● Customer service, within the context of SMB growth, involves providing assistance and support to customers before, during, and after a purchase, a vital function for business survival. lead). Having these ready allows for quicker, more composed responses, reducing the window for a minor issue to snowball into a full-blown crisis.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls In Early Crisis Management

Even with proactive measures, SMBs can still encounter social media crises. However, understanding common pitfalls in early crisis management can help avoid exacerbating the situation. Key pitfalls to avoid include:

Ignoring Or Deleting Negative Feedback

The temptation to ignore or delete negative comments or reviews is strong, but it’s almost always counterproductive. Deleting feedback can be perceived as censorship and fuel further anger and resentment from customers. Ignoring it allows negative sentiment to fester and potentially spread.

Instead, acknowledge all feedback, even negative, and demonstrate a willingness to address concerns. Publicly responding to negative comments, even with a simple acknowledgment and offer to resolve offline, shows customers that their voices are heard and valued.

Engaging In Public Arguments

Social media is not the place for arguments, especially public ones. Getting into heated exchanges with disgruntled customers or online critics can quickly escalate a situation and damage brand reputation. Maintain a calm, professional, and empathetic tone in all public interactions.

Avoid defensiveness or personal attacks. If a conversation becomes unproductive or overly emotional, suggest moving it to a private channel (direct message, email, phone call) to resolve the issue offline.

Lack Of Transparency And Honesty

In a crisis, transparency and honesty are crucial for maintaining trust. Trying to cover up a mistake or mislead customers will almost always backfire. Acknowledge errors openly and honestly, take responsibility, and outline the steps being taken to rectify the situation.

Authenticity and sincerity go a long way in mitigating damage and rebuilding trust. Even admitting “we don’t have all the answers yet, but we are working on it and will provide updates” is better than silence or obfuscation.

Delayed Or Slow Responses

The speed of social media demands quick responses, especially during a crisis. Delayed responses can be interpreted as indifference or incompetence, allowing negative sentiment to amplify and spread. Aim for responses within minutes or hours, not days.

If a full resolution isn’t immediately possible, acknowledge the issue promptly and provide a timeline for updates. Even a brief, timely response is better than a lengthy, delayed one.

By focusing on proactive prevention, establishing basic monitoring, and avoiding common early crisis management pitfalls, SMBs can lay a solid foundation for navigating social media crises effectively. These fundamental steps are crucial for protecting brand reputation Meaning ● Brand reputation, for a Small or Medium-sized Business (SMB), represents the aggregate perception stakeholders hold regarding its reliability, quality, and values. and ensuring long-term online success.

Elevating Smb Crisis Readiness Strategic Response And Team Dynamics

Building upon the fundamentals of social media crisis management, SMBs ready to enhance their preparedness can move into intermediate strategies. This level focuses on developing a more structured response plan, defining team roles, and utilizing slightly more advanced tools to improve efficiency and impact. The goal is to move from reactive damage control to proactive crisis mitigation and reputation management.

Crafting A Detailed Social Media Crisis Response Plan

While pre-approved templates are valuable, a comprehensive social media crisis response plan provides a more detailed roadmap for navigating various crisis scenarios. This plan should be a living document, regularly reviewed and updated, and should include the following key elements:

Identify Potential Crisis Scenarios Relevant To Your Smb

Generic crisis plans are less effective than those tailored to the specific risks and vulnerabilities of an SMB. Conduct a brainstorming session to identify potential crisis scenarios relevant to your industry, business model, and online presence. Consider:

• Product or Service Failures ● Defective products, service outages, quality control issues.
• Customer Service Issues ● Negative reviews, unresolved complaints, widespread dissatisfaction.
• Employee Misconduct ● Inappropriate social media posts, ethical breaches, internal scandals becoming public.
• Data Breaches or Security Incidents ● Compromised customer data, website hacking, social media account breaches.
• Public Relations Missteps ● Offensive or insensitive marketing campaigns, tone-deaf social media posts, leadership gaffes.
• External Attacks ● Negative publicity campaigns by competitors, online trolls, activist groups.

For each identified scenario, consider the potential impact on your business (reputation, sales, customer trust) and the likelihood of occurrence. Prioritize scenarios that are both high-impact and high-likelihood for detailed planning.

Establish A Clear Crisis Communication Protocol

A well-defined communication protocol ensures that everyone knows who is responsible for what during a crisis and how information flows. This protocol should outline:

• Designated Crisis Communication Team ● Identify the individuals who will be part of the crisis communication team. This typically includes representatives from management, marketing, customer service, and potentially legal or PR if resources allow.
• Chain Of Command And Approval Process ● Define who has the authority to approve social media responses and public statements during a crisis. Streamlining the approval process is crucial for timely communication.
• Internal Communication Channels ● Establish channels for internal communication within the crisis team (e.g., dedicated Slack channel, email group, regular conference calls). Efficient internal communication is vital for coordination and consistent messaging.
• External Communication Channels ● Determine which social media platforms and other channels (website, email, press releases) will be used for external communication during a crisis.
• Notification Procedures ● Outline how the crisis communication team will be notified of a potential crisis and how the response plan will be activated.

Document this protocol clearly and ensure all team members are familiar with it. Regular drills or simulations can help test the protocol and identify areas for improvement.

Develop Detailed Response Strategies For Key Crisis Scenarios

Building on the identified crisis scenarios and the communication protocol, develop detailed response strategies for each. These strategies should go beyond basic templates and outline specific actions to be taken at different stages of a crisis. For each scenario, consider:

• Initial Response (First Hour) ● What is the immediate priority? Acknowledge the issue publicly? Gather more information? Pause scheduled social media posts?
• Information Gathering And Assessment (Hours 1-4) ● Who is responsible for gathering facts and assessing the scope of the crisis? What tools will be used to monitor social media sentiment and track the spread of information?
• Communication Strategy (Day 1-3) ● What is the key message to communicate? How often will updates be provided? What tone and language should be used? Will a public apology be necessary?
• Resolution And Follow-Up (Ongoing) ● What steps will be taken to resolve the underlying issue? How will affected customers be compensated or supported? How will the business learn from the crisis and prevent recurrence? How will reputation repair efforts be implemented?

These detailed strategies provide a more robust framework for navigating complex crises and ensure a consistent and coordinated response across all channels.

Defining Team Roles And Responsibilities

Effective crisis management requires a clearly defined team with specific roles and responsibilities. For SMBs, this might involve assigning crisis responsibilities to existing team members rather than creating entirely new roles. Key roles to consider include:

Crisis Team Leader

The crisis team leader is responsible for overall coordination and decision-making during a crisis. This role typically falls to a senior manager or business owner. Responsibilities include:

• Activating the crisis response plan.
• Chairing crisis team meetings.
• Making final decisions on communication strategies.
• Approving public statements and social media responses.
• Liaising with external stakeholders (if necessary).

Social Media Manager/Community Manager

The social media manager (or community manager if the SMB has one) is on the front lines of social media crisis response. Responsibilities include:

• Monitoring social media channels for crisis signals.
• Implementing the communication protocol on social media platforms.
• Drafting and posting social media responses (under approval).
• Engaging with customers online and directing them to appropriate support channels.
• Tracking social media sentiment and reporting on crisis developments.

Customer Service Representative

Customer service representatives play a crucial role in resolving customer complaints and addressing concerns during a crisis. Responsibilities include:

• Handling customer inquiries related to the crisis via phone, email, and direct message.
• Providing accurate and consistent information to customers.
• Escalating complex or sensitive issues to the crisis team leader.
• Documenting customer interactions and feedback.

Public Relations/Communications (If Applicable)

If the SMB has a dedicated PR or communications resource (even part-time or outsourced), they can play a vital role in managing external communications and reputation repair. Responsibilities include:

• Developing press releases and media statements.
• Managing media inquiries.
• Coordinating communication across different channels.
• Developing and implementing reputation repair strategies.

Clearly define these roles and responsibilities within the crisis response plan and ensure all team members are trained on their specific duties. Even in small teams, assigning these responsibilities ensures accountability and a more organized response.

Leveraging Intermediate Tools For Enhanced Efficiency

To further enhance crisis management efficiency, SMBs can leverage intermediate-level tools that offer more advanced features than basic monitoring. These tools often come with free trials or affordable subscription plans suitable for SMB budgets.

Social Listening Platforms (Free Trials/Affordable Plans)

Social listening platforms go beyond basic monitoring by providing more sophisticated analysis and features. Examples include:

• Mentionlytics ● Offers real-time social media monitoring, sentiment analysis, and influencer identification.
• Brand24 ● Tracks brand mentions across the web and social media, provides sentiment analysis, and offers crisis detection alerts.
• Talkwalker Free Social Listening ● A free tool that provides basic social listening Meaning ● Social Listening is strategic monitoring & analysis of online conversations for SMB growth. capabilities, including keyword tracking and sentiment analysis.

These platforms can automate the process of identifying potential crises, provide deeper insights into public sentiment, and help prioritize responses. Utilizing free trials allows SMBs to test different platforms and find one that fits their needs and budget.

Social Media Management Tools With Team Collaboration Features

Social media management tools like Hootsuite and Buffer (even on their free or lower-tier plans) offer team collaboration features that can streamline crisis response. These features include:

• Shared Inboxes ● Allow multiple team members to access and respond to social media messages and mentions from a central location.
• Assignment And Task Management ● Enable assigning tasks and responsibilities to team members during a crisis, ensuring accountability and efficient workflow.
• Internal Communication Features ● Some platforms offer built-in internal communication tools, facilitating real-time collaboration within the crisis team.

These tools improve team coordination, reduce response times, and ensure that no critical messages are missed during a crisis.

Crisis Simulation And Training Platforms

To prepare the crisis team and test the response plan, SMBs can utilize crisis simulation and training platforms. While some advanced platforms might be costly, simpler and more affordable options are available, including:

• Tabletop Exercises ● Conducting simulated crisis scenarios in a meeting setting, discussing response strategies and team actions. This is a low-cost and effective way to test the plan and identify gaps.
• Online Crisis Simulation Games ● Some platforms offer gamified crisis simulations that allow teams to practice their response skills in a virtual environment. These can be more engaging and provide a more realistic training experience.

Regular training and simulations are essential for ensuring that the crisis team is prepared to act effectively when a real crisis occurs. Practice builds confidence and identifies areas for improvement in the plan and team response.

Moving to intermediate crisis management involves shifting from basic reaction to strategic planning, defined team roles, and leveraging tools for enhanced efficiency and proactive mitigation.

By implementing these intermediate strategies, SMBs can significantly enhance their social media crisis readiness. A detailed response plan, clearly defined team roles, and the use of appropriate tools are crucial for navigating crises effectively and protecting brand reputation in the long run.

Ai Powered Crisis Management And Long Term Reputation Resilience For Smbs

For SMBs aiming for a leading edge in social media crisis management, the advanced level incorporates cutting-edge technologies, particularly AI, and focuses on long-term reputation resilience. This stage is about proactive crisis prediction, automated response workflows, and leveraging data analytics for continuous improvement. It moves beyond immediate crisis response to building a robust and adaptable reputation management Meaning ● Reputation management for Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs) centers on strategically influencing and monitoring the public perception of the brand. system.

Integrating Ai For Proactive Crisis Prediction And Automation

Artificial intelligence offers transformative capabilities for social media crisis management, moving from reactive responses to proactive prediction and automated workflows. For SMBs, leveraging AI can provide a significant advantage in identifying and mitigating potential crises before they escalate.

Ai Powered Social Listening And Sentiment Analysis

Advanced AI-powered social listening tools go beyond basic keyword monitoring and sentiment analysis. They utilize natural language processing (NLP) and machine learning (ML) to understand the context and nuances of online conversations. Key features include:

• Predictive Sentiment Analysis ● AI can identify subtle shifts in sentiment and predict potential negative trends before they become widespread. This allows SMBs to proactively address emerging issues.
• Anomaly Detection ● AI algorithms can detect unusual patterns or spikes in social media activity that might indicate an impending crisis, even if specific keywords are not yet triggering alerts.
• Contextual Understanding ● NLP enables AI to understand the meaning behind social media posts, including sarcasm, irony, and cultural context, leading to more accurate sentiment analysis Meaning ● Sentiment Analysis, for small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs), is a crucial business tool for understanding customer perception of their brand, products, or services. and crisis detection.
• Trend Identification ● AI can identify emerging trends and topics relevant to the SMB’s industry and brand, allowing for proactive engagement and potential crisis prevention by addressing customer concerns before they escalate.

Tools like Brandwatch, NetBase Quid, and advanced tiers of Mentionlytics and Brand24 offer these AI-powered features. While these might come with higher subscription costs, the proactive crisis prevention and enhanced insights they provide can be invaluable for SMBs seeking a competitive edge in reputation management.

Automated Crisis Alert And Response Workflows

AI can automate significant portions of the crisis management workflow, freeing up human resources for more strategic tasks. Automation capabilities include:

• Automated Crisis Alerts ● AI-powered monitoring tools can automatically trigger alerts when pre-defined crisis thresholds are met (e.g., a sudden spike in negative sentiment, a surge in brand mentions related to a specific issue). These alerts can be sent to designated crisis team members in real-time.
• Automated Response Routing ● AI can analyze incoming social media messages and automatically route them to the appropriate team member or department based on keywords, sentiment, and topic. This ensures faster and more efficient response times.
• AI-Driven Response Suggestions ● Some AI tools can even suggest pre-approved responses or draft initial responses based on the context of the crisis and pre-defined response templates. This can significantly speed up the response process, especially for common issues.
• Chatbots For Initial Triage ● AI-powered chatbots can be deployed to handle initial customer inquiries during a crisis, providing immediate responses to frequently asked questions and directing customers to appropriate resources or human agents for more complex issues.

Implementing automated workflows requires careful planning and configuration, but it can dramatically improve crisis response efficiency and reduce the burden on human teams. Start with automating alerts and response routing for common crisis scenarios and gradually expand automation capabilities as needed.

Predictive Analytics For Crisis Forecasting

Going beyond real-time monitoring, advanced AI can leverage historical data and predictive analytics Meaning ● Strategic foresight through data for SMB success. to forecast potential future crises. This proactive approach allows SMBs to anticipate and mitigate risks before they materialize. Predictive analytics applications include:

• Historical Crisis Data Analysis ● AI can analyze past social media crises, identifying patterns, triggers, and contributing factors. This historical analysis can help SMBs understand their vulnerabilities and predict potential future crisis scenarios.
• Risk Factor Identification ● AI can identify emerging risk factors based on industry trends, competitor activity, and broader social media conversations. This allows SMBs to proactively address potential issues before they escalate into crises.
• Scenario Planning And Simulation ● AI can be used to create simulations of potential crisis scenarios based on predictive models, allowing SMBs to test their response plans and identify weaknesses in a safe environment.
• Early Warning Systems ● By continuously monitoring social media and analyzing data patterns, AI can act as an early warning system, alerting SMBs to potential crisis triggers before they become widespread public issues.

Utilizing predictive analytics for crisis forecasting is a more advanced strategy that requires access to sophisticated AI tools and data analysis Meaning ● Data analysis, in the context of Small and Medium-sized Businesses (SMBs), represents a critical business process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting strategic decision-making. expertise. However, for SMBs with larger online presences and higher risk profiles, this proactive approach can provide a significant competitive advantage in reputation management.

Advanced Reputation Repair And Long Term Resilience Strategies

Beyond immediate crisis response, advanced social media crisis management focuses on long-term reputation repair and building resilience against future crises. This involves strategic communication, proactive reputation building, and continuous improvement Meaning ● Ongoing, incremental improvements focused on agility and value for SMB success. based on data analysis.

Strategic Reputation Repair Communication

Reputation repair is not just about apologizing; it’s about strategic communication Meaning ● Strategic communication for SMBs is the purposeful use of messaging to achieve business goals, build relationships, and ensure sustainable growth. aimed at rebuilding trust and demonstrating commitment to improvement. Key elements of strategic reputation repair communication include:

• Transparent And Accountable Communication ● Continue to be transparent and honest about the crisis, taking full responsibility for any mistakes made. Clearly communicate the steps being taken to rectify the situation and prevent recurrence.
• Empathy And Customer Focus ● Focus on the impact of the crisis on customers and express genuine empathy for their concerns. Demonstrate a commitment to making things right for affected customers.
• Proactive Content Marketing ● Shift content marketing efforts to focus on positive stories, customer testimonials, and content that reinforces brand values and strengths. This helps to counter negative narratives and rebuild a positive online presence.
• Engaging With Influencers And Advocates ● Engage with positive influencers and brand advocates to amplify positive messages and counter negative sentiment. Authentic endorsements can be highly effective in rebuilding trust.
• Consistent And Long-Term Communication ● Reputation repair is a long-term process. Maintain consistent communication, providing regular updates on progress and demonstrating ongoing commitment to improvement.

Reputation repair communication should be carefully planned and executed, focusing on rebuilding trust and demonstrating a genuine commitment to addressing the root causes of the crisis.

Proactive Reputation Building Initiatives

The best defense against future crises is a strong positive online reputation. Proactive reputation building initiatives are essential for long-term resilience. These include:

• Consistent Positive Content Creation ● Regularly create and share high-quality, engaging content that showcases brand values, expertise, and positive customer experiences. This builds a strong foundation of positive online content.
• Customer Review Management ● Actively encourage positive customer reviews and promptly and professionally respond to all reviews, both positive and negative. Positive review management builds trust and demonstrates customer focus.
• Community Engagement ● Actively engage with online communities relevant to your industry and brand. Participate in conversations, offer valuable insights, and build relationships with potential customers and influencers.
• Corporate Social Responsibility (Csr) Initiatives ● Highlight CSR initiatives and community involvement. Demonstrating social responsibility enhances brand image and builds positive goodwill.
• Search Engine Optimization (Seo) For Reputation Management ● Optimize online content to rank highly in search results for brand-related keywords. This ensures that positive content is easily discoverable and helps to push negative content further down in search rankings.

Proactive reputation building is an ongoing effort that requires consistent effort and strategic planning. It’s an investment in long-term brand resilience and crisis prevention.

Data Driven Crisis Management Improvement

Advanced crisis management is data-driven. Continuously analyze data from social listening, crisis responses, and reputation repair efforts to identify areas for improvement and refine crisis management strategies. Data analysis should focus on:

• Crisis Response Time Analysis ● Track response times for different types of crises and identify bottlenecks in the response workflow. Optimize processes to improve response speed.
• Sentiment Trend Analysis ● Continuously monitor sentiment trends related to the brand and industry. Identify emerging negative trends and proactively address potential issues before they escalate.
• Communication Effectiveness Analysis ● Analyze the effectiveness of different communication strategies used during crises. Identify what works best and refine communication approaches for future crises.
• Root Cause Analysis Of Crises ● Conduct thorough root cause analysis of each crisis to identify underlying issues and implement preventative measures. Learning from past crises is crucial for continuous improvement.
• Reputation Repair Impact Measurement ● Track the impact of reputation repair efforts on brand sentiment, online reputation scores, and business metrics. Measure the effectiveness of different repair strategies and adjust approaches as needed.

Data-driven insights are essential for continuous improvement in social media crisis management. Regularly review data, identify trends, and adapt strategies to enhance both crisis response and long-term reputation resilience.

Advanced crisis management leverages AI for proactive prediction, automates workflows for efficiency, and focuses on long-term reputation resilience through strategic communication and data-driven improvement.

By implementing these advanced strategies, SMBs can achieve a best-in-class social media crisis management capability. AI-powered tools, proactive reputation building, and data-driven optimization are key to not only navigating crises effectively but also turning potential threats into opportunities to strengthen brand reputation and customer trust.

References

• Coombs, W. T. (2007). Ongoing Crisis Communication ● Planning, Managing, and Responding (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
• Heath, R. L. (2010). Strategic Communication in Crisis Management ● Integrating Risk Communication, Disaster Communication, and Legitimacy Repair. Peter Lang Publishing.
• Seeger, M. W., Sellnow, T. L., & Ulmer, R. R. (2008). Communication, Organization, and Crisis (2nd ed.). Purdue University Press.